THE    TEACHING 
OF  ENGLISH 

TEACHING   THE  ART  AND 
THE  SCIENCE  OF  LANGUAGE 

BY 

PAUL  KLAPPER,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION,  COLLEGE  OF  THE  CITY  OP 
NEW  YORK;  AUTHOR  OF  "PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
PRACTICE,' 


NEW  YORK 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 
1916 


COPYRIGHT,  1915,  BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the 
many  principals  and  grade  teachers  who  furnished  him 
with  copies  of  compositions  written  by  children  under 
their  charge.  The  writer  is  especially  grateful  to  Mr. 
William  E.  Grady,  Principal  of  Public  School  64,  New 
York  City,  from  whose  collection  of  children's  compo- 
sitions and  models  he  took,  among  others,  the  letter  by 
Richard  Mansfield  to  his  son,  "The  Autobiography  of 
Brutus'  Sword/'  and  "The  Autobiography  of  a  Base- 
ball." 


330397 


CONTENTS 


PART   I 

THE   EXPRESSIONAL   ASPECT    OF   COMPOSI- 

TION 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATION  .        .        i 
Composition  a  Natural  Exercise,  i  ;  The  Art 
of   Composition  Is  the  Art  of  Thinking,  3; 
The  Spirit  in  Composition  Teaching,  4;  The 
Teaching  Problems  in  Composition,  6. 

II.     INFORMAL    COMPOSITION    IN    THE 

FIRST  FOUR  YEARS    .....       10 

ORAL   CONVERSATION   AND   REPRODUCTION   LES- 

SONS       ........       10 

The  Method  Governed  by  the  Basic  Difficul- 
ties, 10. 

ORAL  WORK  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES          .        .       12 
A.    Conversation  and  Reproduction  Lessons, 
12;    Opportunities    for   Oral   Language   Les- 
son, 20. 

III.     FORMAL  COMPOSITION  IN  THE  FIRST 

FOUR  YEARS     ......      22 

The  Need  of  Formal  Language  Drills,  22; 
Memorization  and  Recitation,  23;  Learning 
the  Necessary  Language  Facts,  24;  The  Sys- 
tematic Correction  of  Common  Errors  of 
vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Speech,  31 ;  Development  of  Efficiency  in 
Early  Language  Work  Is  Slow  and  Diffi- 
cult, 35. 

WRITTEN  WORK  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES  .        .      38 
Its  Minor  Position,  38;  The  Transition  from 
Oral  to  Written  Composition,  39. 

IV.     COMPOSITION  IN  THE  GRAMMAR 

GRADES 42 

THE  SELECTION  OF  A  PROPER  SUBJECT         .        .      42 
The  Method-whole  in  Composition,  42;  The 
Preparatory  Period,  43. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  THE  SUBJECT  ....      44 
The  Sources  of  Subject-matter,  44. 

V.     COMPOSITION  IN  THE  GRAMMAR 

GRADES   (Continued)         ....      63 
How    SECURE   ORGANIZATION    AND    SEQUENCE: 

THE  OUTLINE 63 

The  Tendency  to  Ramble,  63;  The  Principle 
of  Organization  Taught  by  the  Outline,  64; 
Values  of  the  Outline,  66;  The  Drill  to  Insure 
Mastery  of  the  Outline,  67;  Cautions  in  De- 
veloping Outlines,  70;  How  to  Secure  Va- 
riety in  the  Outlines,  71 ;  How  Closely  Shall 
the  Outline  Be  Followed?  74;  Supplementary 
Means  of  Developing  Power  of  Organiza- 
tion, 76. 

VI.     COMPOSITION  IN   THE  GRAMMAR 

GRADES   (Continued)         ....      78 
EXPRESSIONAL  LIMITATIONS  :  THE  MODEL  .        .      78 
Group  Teaching,  79;  The  Outline,  80;  The  In- 
timacy of  Grammar  and  Composition,  80. 

THE  MODEL 82 

Basic  Principle  of  Teaching  Language 
Through  a  Model,  82;  The  Selection  of  the 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Model,  83;  General  Treatment  of  the  Model, 
91;  How  Closely  Shall  the  Model  Be  Fol- 
lowed? 103;  Should  the  Model  Precede  or 
Follow  the  Composition?  104;  How  to  Pre- 
vent Slavish  Imitation  of  the  Model,  106. 

VII.    THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COM- 
POSITIONS          115 

The  Period  of  Written  Composition,  115. 

THE  PERIOD  OF  CORRECTION 119 

Objects  of  Correction,  119;  The  Time  for 
Correction,  120;  Incorrect  Method,  120;  The 
Method  of  Correcting  Written  Work,  122; 
Seeming  Limitations  of  the  Method,  124; 
Eliminating  Individual  Errors,  124;  How 
Shall  the  Class  Work  Be  Kept?  128;  The  Re- 
writing of  Corrected  Compositions,  128. 

VIII.     HOW  TO  VITALIZE  COMPOSITION  EX- 
ERCISES       130 

Introduction,  130;  Greater  Emphasis  on  Let- 
ters, 130;  The  Correspondence  Should  Treat 
of  Actual  Affairs  of  Real  Life,  131;  The  Cor- 
respondence Itself  Should  Be  Real,  132;  The 
Class  Journal  with  Its  Board  of  Editors 
Elected  or  Selected,  133;  Use  Debatable  Top- 
ics, 134;  Aim  at  Variety  of  Form  and  Con- 
tent, 135;  The  Teacher,  157. 

PART   II 
THE  FORMAL  ASPECT  OF  COMPOSITION 

IX.     THE  TEACHING  OF  SPELLING          .        .    160 
Expressional  vs.  Formal  Aspect  of  Composi- 
tion,    160;     Spelling    Usually    Tested,     Not 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Taught,  160;  Objects  of  the  Teaching  of 
Spelling,  161;  Principles  Guiding  the  Selec- 
tion of  Spelling  Words,  162;  Source  of  Spell- 
ing Words,  165 ;  Media  of  Presenting  Spelling 
Words,  166;  Method  of  Teaching  Spelling, 
172;  Procedure  in  Teaching  Words,  172;  Gen- 
eral Considerations  Governing  Drills  in  Spell- 
ing, 176;  Independent  Study  of  Spelling,  178; 
The  Test  in  Spelling,  179;  Record  of  Mis- 
spelled Words,  181 ;  Enriching  the  Spelling 
List,  183. 

X.     THE   MEANING  AND   USE   OF   NEW 

WORDS 185 

THE  ENRICHMENT  OF  VOCABULARY  .  .  .  185 
Shall  There  Be  Formal  Instruction  in  the 
Meaning  and  Use  of  New  Words?  185;  Se- 
lection of  the  "Meaning  and  Use"  List,  186; 
Methods  of  Teaching  Meaning  of  New 
Words,  187;  How  Make  the  Use  of  New 
Words  Habitual,  190;  Definitions,  192;  The 
Supplementary  Means  of  Increasing  Vocabu- 
lary, 194. 

XL     DICTATION:    TEACHING  THE  FORMAL 

ASPECT  OF  COMPOSITION  .        .        .198 
Objects    of    Dictation    Lessons,     197;     The 
Choice  of  the  Selection  to  Be  Dictated,  198; 
Procedure  in  the  Dictation  Lesson,  200. 

XII.     MEMORY  GEMS:    MEMORIZATION  AND 

RECITATION 206 

Value  of  Memory  Gems,  206;  The  Selection 
of  the  Memory  Gem,  207;  Motivating  the 
Memory  Gems,  208;  Procedure  in  Memoriz- 
ing Literary  Gems,  209;  Retention  Through 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Thought  Rather  than  Through  Memory  Ap- 
peal, 213;  Aids  to  Memorization,  214;  The 
Recitation,  214. 

XIII.  THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR     .    217 

The  Disputed  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Mod- 
ern Curriculum,  217;  Grammar  a  Discredited 
Subject,  218;  Values  of  Grammar,  223. 

XIV.  PRINCIPLES  GOVERNING  THE  TEACH- 

ING OF  GRAMMAR 229 

Begin  with  the  Sentence,  229;  Make  the 
Work  as  Concrete  and  Practical  as  Possible, 
230;  Shall  the  Method  in  Grammar  Be  In- 
ductive or  Deductive?  232;  The  Use  of  the 
Type  Form  Must  Not  Be  Overemphasized, 
2395  By  Avoiding  Stereotyped  Definitions 
and  Set  Formulae  We  Are  Saved  from  An- 
other Erroneous  Form  of  Teaching  Grammar, 
240;  The  Application  Step  Is  the  Final  Jus- 
tification of  Grammar  and  Must  Be  Accord- 
ed the  Most  Important  Place  in  the  Les- 
son, 242;  Function  Should  Be  Made  Focal 
in  All  Grammatical  Analysis,  244;  Analysis 
Is  Important  but  We  Must  Not  Analyze  for 
the  Sake  of  Analysis,  245 ;  "Parsing  Is  Es- 
sential if  Used  Within  Bounds,"  246;  "False 
Syntax"  Must  Be  Emphasized,  for  It  Is  an 
Effective  Means  of  Applying  the  Facts  of 
Grammar,  248;  Great  Care  Must  Be  Ex- 
ercised in  the  Organization  of  Tests,  249; 
Proper  Reviews  Are  Essential  for  Success- 
ful Work  in  Grammar,  255;  The  Textbook 
Must  Be  Used  Frequently  in  the  Teaching 
of  Grammar,  256;  Careful  Gradation  is  a 
Potent  Factor  in  Removing  Difficulties  of 
Comprehension  in  Grammar,  257;  All  Gram- 


xii  CONTENTS 

matical  Forms  and  Functions  Must  Be  Taught 
in  the  Same  Association  in  Which  They  Will 
Be  Used  in  Natural  Speech,  259;  Summary: 
Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Elementary  Cur- 
riculum, 262. 


THE  TEACHING   OF 
ENGLISH 


PART   I 

THE  EXPRESSIONAL  ASPECT  OF 
COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER   I 
INTRODUCTORY  CONSIDERATION 

Composition  a  Natural  Exercise. — Composition  is  that 
exercise  in  which  ideas  are  ordered  in  a  rational 
sequence  and  then  expressed  in  accordance  with 
recognized  standards  of  form.  This  broad  concep- 
tion of  the  term  composition  shows  at  once  how 
varied  the  art  of  composing  may  be,  for  there  are  as 
many  kinds  of  composition  as  there  are  forms  of 
expression.  He  who  is  dramatizing  an  action  that 
grips  him,  making  a  pictorial  representation  of  a 
scene  that  thrills  him,  or  translating  in  symbols  of 
musical  notation  a  melody  or  sentiment  that  charms 
him,  is  engaged  in  the  art  of  composition  as  truly  as 
if  he  were  employing  language,  written  or  oral,  to 
express  this  action  or  scene  or  sentiment.  In  all  these 
kinds  of  art  an  individual  must  group  his  ideas  in 

i 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

rational  sequence  and  give  expression  to  them  in 
strict  accord  with  standard  forms.  This  study  con- 
cerns itself  with  one  phase  only  of  the  general  art  of 
composition,  for  it  confines  itself  to  verbal  composi- 
tion. 

This  theoretical  definition  has  a  very  practical  bear- 
ing on  the  work  of  the  elementary  school-teacher  be- 
cause it  shows  clearly  how  simple  and  natural  an 
art  composition  is.  It  strips  composition  of  the 
mystery  and  of  the  stiff  and  forbidding  formalism 
which  usually  accompany  it.  Children  must  be 
shown  that  they  are  constantly  composing,  that 
they  have  been  constantly  composing  and  that  they 
will  continue  to  compose  as  long  as  they  participate 
in  rational  communication.  Composition  must  be 
shown  to  them  to  be  as  necessary  an  activity  as  talk- 
ing or  walking.  The  child  must  be  led  to  recognize 
that  he  has  "composition  ability"  of  no  mean  degree. 
Teachers,  too,  must  realize  that  most  children  are  not 
deficient  in  the  art  of  composition.  As  we  listen  to  a 
narrative  of  a  ten-year-old  lad  who  is  giving  his 
friend  a  verbal  picture  of  the  athletic  game  he  saw, 
or  to  a  description  by  his  little  sister,  half  his  age,  of 
the  particular  doll  that  has  caught  her  fancy,  we  be- 
come convinced  that  the  art  of  composition  is  not 
foreign  to  the  child.  In  the  formal  classroom  lesson 
the  life  of  the  informal  narrative  and  the  charm  of 
the  child's  description  are  ruthlessly  crushed  by  the 
formidable  technical  laws  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 
which  are  imposed  upon  children.  How  to  transfer 
this  native  ability  to  compose,  so  manifest  in  informal 


•j 


INTRODUCTORY   CONSIDERATION 

intercourse,  to  the  formal  language  lessons,  is  the 
problem,  the  solution  of  which  shall  occupy  the  suc- 
ceeding chapters. 

The  Art  of  Composition  Is  the  Art  of  Thinking. — Com- 
position properly  taught  has  far-reaching  educational 
influences.  The  very  definition  and  illustrations  of 
the  art  of  composition  show  that  it  gives  the  child  a 
training  in  thinking  through  a  process  of  self-expres- 
sion. A  well-graded  systematic  course  in  composition 
is  a  means  of  developing  clear  and  sequential  thought. 
But  the  thought  activities  of  the  child  are  developed 
in  composition  only  as  the  pupil  consistently  and  per- 
sistently expresses  himself.  This  form  of  mental  de- 
velopment through  self-expression  is  the  ideal  in  the 
educative  process.  This  estimate  of  the  educational 
worth  of  composition  is  not  extravagant  when  com- 
pared to  the  conceptions  of  its  educative  worth  as 
formulated  by  specialists  in  the  teaching  of  English. 
Sykes  tells  us  that  in  composition,  "The  pupil's  mind 
and  life  must  he  brought  into  close  relationship  with 
his  efforts  at  self-expression."  If  we  recall  the  defi- 
nition of  composition,  this  statement  follows  as  a 
natural  corollary.  Carpenter,  Baker,  and  Scott  see 
in  composition  an  exercise  which  is  "a  process  of 
growth  of  the  child's  own  capabilities,  by  careful  ob- 
servation, correct  inference  and  adequate  expression." 
The  teaching  of  composition  involves  more  than 
merely  teaching  the  child  to  express  himself;  it  means 
teaching  him  to  see  and  to  think  and  to  formulate 
correctly  and  systematically  the  inferences  from  life's 
experiences. 

3 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

The  Spirit  in  Composition  Teaching. — The  failure  or 
the  success  of  a  composition  lesson  is  determined  to 
a  greater  extent  than  in  almost  any  other  school  sub- 
ject, by  the  spirit  in  which  the  recitation  is  conceived 
and  carried  out.  In  order  to  insure  the  proper  at- 
mosphere and  spirit  rapport  between  pupils  and 
teacher  two  general  cautions  must  constantly  be  kept 
in  mind. 

1.  The  Play  Spirit  Must  Pervade  the  Composition 
Period. — Composition    is    too    often    an    unwelcome 
period  to  the  child.     It  completely  overwhelms  him 
with  technicalities  and  empty  formalism.    He  is  asked 
to  write  on  topics  that  are  far  indeed  from  his  sphere 
of  life;  there  is  little  that  he  cares  to  say  about  them. 
If  by  chance  the  topic  is  one  concerning  which  he 
feels  an  urgency  to  express  himself,  he  finds  that  all 
pleasure  of  self-expression  is  lost,   for  he  must  be 
careful  of  his  penmanship;  he  must  spell  words  in 
accordance  with  a  tradition  that  seems  to  obey  no 
phonetic  law;  his  verbs  must  show  agreement  with 
subjects;  he  must  bear  in  mind  punctuation,  capital- 
ization,  the  thousand   annoying  concerns  and  cares 
that  make  composition  a  burden  in  his  school  life. 
Composition  is  an  art  and,  like  all  art,  is  conceived  in 
the   spirit  of   play  and  is   designed  to   give  intense 
pleasure.     The  composition  of  the  classroom  must  be 
as  attractive  as  any  other  art  and  as  natural  as  play. 

2.  Technique  Must  Be  Subordinated  to  Expres- 
sion.— The    second    word    of    caution    reminds    the 
teacher  that  in  a  composition  exercise,  form  must  be 
subordinated  to  content.    In  the  formal  lesson  the  child 


INTRODUCTORY   CONSIDERATION 

must  be  no  more  conscious  of  the  laws  of  paragraph- 
ing, of  sentence  structure  or  of  punctuation  than  he  is 
conscious  of  these  in  the  informal  speech  of  his  daily 
life.  The  child  should  learn  the  laws  of  sequence, 
coherence,  narration  and  description  as  he  learns  the 
laws  of  an  athletic  game.  In  baseball,  the  child  gives 
all  attention  to  the  playing,  not  to  the  science  of  the 
game;  in  the  actual  progress  of  the  game  the  rules 
are  mere  incidentals.  No  boy  has  ever  deliberately 
memorized  the  regulations  governing  various  athletic 
activities;  yet  what  a  mastery  of  them  he  has  devel- 
oped! The  science  of  the  game  and  the  niceties  of 
form  which  the  child  acquires  are  unconscious  results 
of  constant  playing  for  the  sake  of  the  game  itself 
rather  than  for  its  technique.  So,  too,  the  laws  of 
unity,  development,  suspension,  ease,  force  —  the 
whole  series  of  rhetorical  laws  which  constitute  the 
literary  technique  so  pretentiously  imposed  upon  the 
child — should  be  learned  through  actual  expression 
rather  than  through  formal  teaching.  A  composition 
lesson,  conceived  in  any  but  this  informal  spirit,  and 
conducted  with  a  rigor  and  a  formalism  altogether  too 
frequent  in  class  instruction,  must  inevitably  produce 
the  stilted  and  lifeless  effects  which  the  average  school 
child  turns  out.  In  the  light  of  these  two  cautions 
which  are  sounded  in  the  initial  step  in  the  study  of 
methods  of  teaching  composition,  we  cannot  be  too 
severe  in  our  condemnation  of  the  pedagogy  which 
the  educational  system  of  one  of  our  leading  cities 
offered  to  its  teachers  in  its  manual.  Although  it  is 
not  part  of  the  current  manual  of  that  city,  its  spirit 

5 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH 

still  animates  much  of  the  work  in  elementary  com- 
position. 

When  any  topic  such  as  sugar,  nickel,  circulation  of  the 
blood  or  the  indestructibility  of  matter  has  been  as  fully 
treated  in  a  conversational  lesson  and  review  as  may  be 
thought  expedient,  the  exercise  in  composition  should  imme- 
diately follow.  This  should  be  a  class  exercise.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  pupils  do  not  make  them  so  long  as  to  pre- 
vent proper  correction.  To  insure  a  proper  variety  of 
thought  and  expression  it  is  necessary  that  the  oral  lesson 
which  formed  the  basis  of  the  composition  should  be  so 
selected  as  to  give  a  considerable  number  of  interesting 
points  or  items.  If  injuriously  frequent  repetition  and  re- 
view are  avoided  the  several  pupils  will  recall  different 
groups  of  items  and  all  undue  sameness  will  be  prevented. 
When  identical  phrases  or  sentences  are  frequently  found 
in  the  exercises  they  are  unquestionable  evidence  of  bad 
methods,  both  in  the  oral  lessons  and  in  the  teaching  of 
composition. 

The  Teaching  Problems  in  Composition. — In  the  teach- 
ing of  composition  there  is  a  threefold  aim  which 
must  be  achieved.  We  must  now  turn  to  each  mem- 
ber of  this  triple  problem  to  consider  its  importance 
and  scope  in  class  teaching. 

/.  The  first  aim  in  the  teaching  of  composition  is  to 
stimulate  a  thought  basis  for  expression.  As  the 
formal  composition  lesson  begins,  the  sources  of  ex- 
pression seem  to  dry  up,  and  the  children  seem  to 
have  no  problem  in  their  lives  that  demands  expres- 
sion, no  urgency  that  craves  solution,  no  personal 
preference  that  prompts  intercourse  and  an  at- 
tempt at  convincing  others.  This  seeming  dearth 

6 


INTRODUCTORY   CONSIDERATION 

of  material  worthy  of  expression  does  not  present 
a  very  difficult  teaching  problem.  A  little  thought 
and  sympathetic  insight  into  child  life  soon  re- 
veal a  great  number  of  topics  that  especially 
appeal  to  the  imagination  of  growing  children,  to 
their  love  of  story,  of  action,  of  biography.  The 
child's  emotions  and  interests  are  intense  even  if 
they  are  short-lived;  his  likes  and  dislikes  are 
many  though  ever  changing.  The  sympathetic 
and  resourceful  teacher  therefore  need  never 
lack  an  appropriate  subject  for  children's  composi- 
tions. 

2 .  The  second  problem  is  to  teach  our  children  the 
laws  of  expression,  the  standards  of  language.  The 
child  must  learn  and  obey  the  rules  prescribed  by 
legitimate  usage,  by  grammar,  and  rhetoric.  Here, 
too,  we  have  a  comparatively  simple  pedagogical  task. 
A  little  patience  and  skill  will  enable  a  teacher  to 
teach  any  law  of  grammar  or  rhetoric  appropriate  to 
the  age  and  capabilities  of  the  children.  If  the  first 
lesson  does  not  bring  comprehension,  a  second  or  a 
third  period  of  graded  and  properly  presented  exer- 
cises will  serve  this  end. 

3.  The  third  aim  of  composition  teaching  is  to  incul- 
cate in  the  pupil  the  habit  of  employing  in  the  expres- 
sion of  his  ideas  those  laws  and  principles  of  compo- 
sition that  have  been  taught  him.  This  is  the  most 
vital  problem,  for  it  is  the  crux  in  composition  teach- 
ing. Any  seventh-year  pupil  can  be  taught  that 
double  negatives  are  wrong,  that  a  participle  alone 
cannot  be  a  predicate,  but  not  every  child  can  be  read- 

7 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

ily  trained  to  avoid  "ain't  got  no,"  "I  seen,"  or  "he 
done" — expressions  that  have  the  force  of  years  of 
constant  use  back  of  them. 

Habit  is  the  result  of  constant  drill  through  regular 
and  frequent  repetitions.  Class  teaching  is  today  so 
hampered  by  its  inherent  limitations  that  this  drill  in 
sufficient  repetitions  in  composition  lessons  is  almost 
impossible.  Composition  has  a  science  and  an  art 
side.  The  science  of  composition  the  child  can  readily 
learn  but  the  art  of  composition  he  acquires  only  after 
long,  conscientious  and  laborious  practice.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  the  incorrect  forms  that  are 
characteristic  of  the  speech  of  children  have  already 
been  habituated  and,  in  many  cases,  are  further 
strengthened  by  the  influences  of  home  and  street. 
The  teacher  must  realize  the  colossal  task  that  con- 
fronts him  in  composition  teaching  in  all  cosmopolitan 
cities  and  towns.  Teachers  must  learn  to  feel  that 
they  are  teachers  of  composition  first  and  foremost, 
that  an  error  in  English  is  primary,  that  inaccuracies 
in  facts  of  history,  geography  or  arithmetic  may,  and 
should,  be  subordinated  to  correctness  of  speech. 
Teachers  in  the  departmental  system  who  are  respon- 
sible for  only  one  or  two  subjects  must  bear  this  par- 
ticular dictum  in  mind.  The  departmental  teacher 
who  teaches  English  must  communicate  with  his  col- 
leagues, tell  them  the  specific  forms  of  speech  that 
are  being  taught  and  thus  secure  their  cooperation  by 
asking  them  to  constantly  correct  the  speech  of  chil- 
dren in  all  subjects.  Unless  teachers  consciously  em- 
phasize the  application  of  the  lessons  of  the  English 

8 


INTRODUCTORY   CONSIDERATION 

period  in  all  lessons,  it  would  be  better  to  eliminate 
the  formal  teaching  of  language. 


SUGGESTED   READING1 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.  The  Teaching  of 
English,  pp.  75-81.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  The  Elementary  School  Course  in 
English,  Introduction.  University  of  Chicago 
Press. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.  Linguistic  Development  and  Educa- 
tion, chaps.  I  and  II.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

JThe  bibliographies  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  not 
exhaustive.  The  aim  is,  rather,  to  suggest  such  reading  as 
will  amplify  and  elaborate  the  various  phases  of  the  subject 
treated  in  each  chapter.  Where  the  publisher  is  not  men- 
tioned, the  reader  will  find  the  book  or  the  reference  listed 
at  the  end  of  a  previous  chapter. 


CHAPTER  II 

INFORMAL   COMPOSITION   IN   THE  FIRST   FOUR 
YEARS 

ORAL    CONVERSATION    AND    REPRODUCTION    LESSONS 

The  Method  Governed  by  the  Basic  Difficulties. — Be- 
fore planning  her  method  of  presentation  in  a  specific 
subject,  a  teacher  must  comprehend  clearly  the  basic 
problems  which  confront  her.  The  method  she  finally 
evolves  must  be  such  as  is  designed  to  meet  these  spe- 
cific difficulties.  The  primary  grade  teacher  feels  her- 
self completely  overwhelmed  by  a  host  of  puzzling 
conditions  which  the  children  create  when  the  formal 
work  in  composition  is  begun.  When  finally  system- 
atized and  simplified,  these  difficulties  group  them- 
selves under  three  heads.  What,  then,  are  the  basic 
difficulties  which  children  present  to  the  teacher  of 
primary  composition? 

The  initial  problem  is  found  in  the  fact  that  these 
children  seem  to  have  nothing  to  say  in  the  dignified 
composition  period.  The  noisy,  active,  talkative  child 
is  now  a  social  vacuum.  A  second  aggravating  prob- 
lem is  produced  by  the  timidity  and  the  backwardness 
of  the  child.  The  newness  of.  the  work,  the  strange- 
ness of  classroom  procedure,  the  consciousness  of  per- 

10 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

sonal  limitations  make  these  children  unable  to  forget 
themselves,  to  come  out  of  their  shells,  to  lose  them- 
selves in  the  subject  that  the  teacher  suggests.  It  is 
obvious  that  much  coaxing  and  emotional  sympathy 
are  necessary.  The  difficulty  of  these  circumstances 
is  increased  by  a  third  problem,  viz.,  the  deficiency  of 
expression.  The  vocabularies  of  these  children  seem 
too  meager  to  enable  them  to  express  themselves  even 
if  they  have  ideas  that  crave  communication. 

In  the  light  of  the  basic  difficulties  that  we  have 
enumerated,  what  must  the  method  of  instruction  be? 
The  answer  was  suggested  in  the  observation  above: 
the  method  must  be  governed  by  these  problems;  it 
must  seek  to  counteract  them  at  every  step  in  the 
lesson.  With  this  end  in  view  it  can  readily  be  seen 
that  the  method  must  be,  in  the  main,  an  oral  one — 
almost  exclusively  so  in  the  first  two  years  of  the 
course — with  only  a  crude  attempt  at  written  compo- 
sition in  the  third  year.  It  is  through  skillful  oraJ 
instruction  that  the  patient  teacher  strives  to  awaken 
in  the  mind  of  the  child  preferences  and  interests  that 
crave  expression;  it  is  through  the  interest  and  the 
ingenuity  of  the  treatment  that  she  hopes  to  attract 
the  child  until  he.  becomes  so  absorbed  in  the  topic 
that  he  forgets  himself  and  is  thus  no  longer  con- 
scious of  personal  limitations,  and  talks  freely  and 
spontaneously ;  it  is  through  proper  gradation  and 
organization  of  the  oral  lesson  that  a  few  words  and 
expressions  are  made  central  in  each  topic  and  by 
dint  of  repetition  become  part  of  the  child's  vocab- 
ulary; it  is  through  constant  and  untiring  corrections 

ii 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

in  oral  drills  that  incorrect  forms  of  speech  are  under- 
mined and  finally  eradicated.  We  must  turn  then  to 
a  consideration  of  the  nature,  the  organization  and 
the  method  of  oral  work  in  composition  in  the  early 
grades. 

ORAL    WORK    IN    THE    PRIMARY    GRADES 

A.  Conversation  and  Reproduction  Lessons. — i.  The 
Choice  of  a  Subject. — The  most  common  form  of 
oral  composition  is  the  conversation,  and  the  repro- 
duction lesson.  The  terms  are  self-explanatory  and 
make  formal  definition  unnecessary.  The  first  prob- 
lem that  challenges  the  teacher's  thought  in  these  oral 
lessons  is  the  choice  of  the  proper  subject.  The 
teacher  must  exercise  great  care  that  she  presents  no 
subject  that  has  a  thought  difficult  for  the  child.  It 
must  be  a  topic  with  which  the  child  is  conversant  and 
which  immediately  suggests  a  host  of  ideas  in  his 
mind,  pressing  for  expression.  Secondly,  it  must  be 
a  theme  replete  with  action.  Every  sentence  must 
have  a  "doing  word"  in  the  predicate.  These  imma- 
ture minds  find  no  fascination  in  qualities,  observa- 
tions and  inferences.  Thirdly,  the  topic  must  be,  if 
possible,  one  about  which  the  child  has  a  preference. 
"Shall  We  Have  a  Relay  Race  or  a  Ring  Game  at 
Recess?"  is  bound  to  elicit  an  answer  from  a  normal 
child.  "The  Kind  of  Dog  I  Want  for  My  Pet," 
prompts  eloquent  speech  in  every  boy. 

It  is  well  to  select  for  this  oral  work  a  series  of 
stories  which  are  told  by  the  teacher  and  are  then 
used  as  material  for  reproduction  lessons.  These 

12 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

stories,  properly  selected,  become  a  source  of 
far-reaching  values  for  the  development  of  the 
child.  They  afford  the  child  an  informal  and  very 
agreeable  means  of  developing  sustained  thought; 
they  add  to  the  child's  stock  of  words  and  expres- 
sions; they  introduce  the  child  to  idiomatic  English; 
they  give  the  children  their  heritage  of  fable,  folklore 
and  stories  that  have  inspired  the  race  to  higher  ideals 
of  life ;  and  finally  they  furnish  excellent  material  for 
self-expression  because  these  stories,  by  their  interest- 
ing content,  stir  in  each  child  a  strong  motive  for 
communication. 

2.  Mode  of  Treatment. — Having  selected  a  suit- 
able topic  for  oral  composition,  the  teacher  is  now 
occupied  with  the  method  of  presenting  it  to  the  class, 
and  with  the  conduct  of  the  lesson.  We  must  be 
sure  that  the  facts  of  the  topic  are  not  the  goal  of 
the  lesson,  hence  we  need  have  little  concern  about 
how  exhaustively  the  theme  is  treated.  Take  only 
the  surface  facts,  talk  about  the  topic  rather  than 
on  the  topic,  follow  a  free  and  easy  sequence  if  the 
children  are  happier  in  this  development.  Freedom 
is  the  keynote  of  the  course  of  the  lesson.  Hence 
it  must  not  be  considered  amiss  if  the  pupils  change 
details,  or  make  personal  additions  or  rational  mod- 
ifications. This  is  not  a  test  period  and  the  lesson 
must  not  be  conducted  in  a  "quiz"  spirit.  The  main 
object  is  to  arouse  such  interest  and  enthusiasm  in  the 
subject  that  the  children  will  lose  themselves  in  it. 

Nevertheless,  we  must  guard  against  mere  prat- 
tle. The  lesson  must  possess  definite  teaching  char- 

13 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

acteristics.     Chief  among  them  we  must  mention  the 
following : 

a.  Real  Motive  and  Social  Spirit.     Unusual  care 
must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  discussion  from  becom- 
ing  perfunctory.      Children   must   be   made   to    feel 
that  they  are  talking  not  because  they  must  but  be- 
cause there  is   an  urgency  to   communicate   a   con- 
viction, to  narrate  a  personal  incident,  or  to  give  pleas- 
ure to  others  through  the  telling  of  interesting  ex- 
periences.     These   promptings  must   serve   to   make 
the  oral  language   work  in  the  class  as  natural  as 
oral  communication  in  everyday  life  and  thus  infuse 
real  motive  into  class  discussions. 

b.  The  Teacher's  Aim.     Before  each  discussion  or 
reproduction  the  teacher  must  decide  on  the  ultimate 
purpose  of  the  lesson.     If  vocabulary  is  to  be  in- 
creased, what  words  are  the  children  to  acquire  and 
what  means  must  be  adopted  to  make  these  words 
part  of  the  pupils'  expressional  stock?     If  new  type 
forms  of  phrases  or  sentences  are  to  be  learned,  what 
shall  the  teacher  do  to  introduce  these  naturally  and 
frequently  and  to  insure  their  use?     It  may  be  that 
the  aim  is  to  give  pleasing  content,  stir  imagination, 
provoke  personal  opinion — but  in  all  cases  the  teacher 
must  have  an  aim  which  molds  the  lesson  and  deter- 
mines its  organization. 

c.  Logical  Organization.     The  theme  must  be  un- 
folded with  due  regard  to  rational  sequence  of  ideas. 

d.  All  Children  to  Participate.     It  is  necessary  that 
every  effort  be  made  to  have  all  children  take  active 
part  in  the  discussion.     Many  lessons  in  oral  compo- 

14 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

sition  fail  because  the  teacher  neglects  the  backward 
and  the  diffident  children  who  are  crowded  out  of 
the  lesson  by  the  brighter  and  the  more  responsive 
pupils. 

3.  Dramatisation  an  Aid  in  Oral  Reproduction  and 
Conversation  Exercises. — The  teacher  who  finds  the 
diffidence  of  some  of  her  children  a  vexing  problem 
and  a  cause  for  their  failure  to  participate  in  the 
class  discussions   and   reproductions  may   enlist  the 
enthusiasm  of  these  timid  pupils  by  an  emphasis  on 
dramatization.     No  appropriate   theme  that  can  be 
motorized  should  be  overlooked,  or,  if  selected,  should 
be  developed  by  exclusively  verbal  means.     Dramati- 
zation has  much  to  contribute  to  oral  composition, 
It   gives   the   retiring  child   a  new   interest   in   self- 
expression;  it  dispels  ultra  self-consciousness;  it  gives 
to  expression  a  naturalness  which  it  may  otherwise 
lack  and  thus  makes  self-expression  the  pleasurable 
exercise  that  it  is  under  normal  conditions.    But  these 
ends  of  dramatization  are  lost  unless  it  is  spontane- 
ous, and  has  its  origin  in  the   child's   craving   for 
motor  expression.      Successful  classroom  dramatiza- 
tion is  free  from  affectation,  and  never  degenerates 
into  mere   entertainment.      In   planning  a   lesson   in 
oral  composition,  the  teacher  must  seek  to  incorporate 
as  many  motor  aids  as  possible   for  only  then  will 
the  children  be  caught  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  situ- 
ation and  experience  the  joy  of  communication/ 

4.  Systematization  of  the  Daily  Topics. — The  sug- 
gestion for  freedom  and  spontaneity  in  the  conduct 
of  an  oral  composition  lesson  does  not  argue  for  a 

15 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

lack  of  organization  in  these  conversation  and  re- 
production lessons.  While  the  children  are  permitted 
to  develop  the  topic  in  any  way  that  gives  maximum 
expression,  the  subjects  that  are  offered  must  follow 
a  rational  system.  Monotony  is  the  pitfall  that  must 
constantly  be  avoided  in  all  this  work.  The  only  way 
to  guard  against  it  and  insure  stimulating  variety  i§ 
to  change  the  nature  of  the  topic  daily.  Thus,  on 
Monday,  it  is  a  personal  experience;  on  Tuesday,  it 
is  an  ethical  topic;  on  Wednesday,  a  theme  in  nature 
study  is  selected ;  on  Thursday,  the  reading  lesson  of- 
fers interesting  material  for  reproduction;  on  Fri- 
day, an  exposition  of  a  process  learned  in  the  manual 
training  period  affords  material  for  conversation. 
How  varied  a  list  the  teacher  has  at  her  command 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

Partial  List  of  Appropriate  Topics 

1.  Narration  of   Personal   Experiences:   "What   I 
Saw  Coming  to  School/'  "An  Accident  on  the  Street," 
"Going  to   a  Fire,"   "The   Game  at  Recess,"   "Our 
Outing  to  ,"  etc. 

2.  Nature     Study:      Conversation     Lessons     on 
"Birds,"  "Insects,"  "Flowers,"  etc. ;  topics  that  form 
the  assignment  in  the  course  of  study  for  the  grade. 

3.  Description:    "Pets,"    "Playthings,"    "Pictures," 
"Places  Visited,"  etc. 

4.  Story  of  the  Occupations  Seen  in  the  Child's 
Environment:   The   work  of  the  baker,   shoemaker, 
carpenter,  policeman,  fireman,  etc. 

16 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

5.  Habits  of   Cleanliness:   "How  to  Have   Clean 
Teeth,"  "How  to  Look  Bright  and  Attractive,"  etc. 

6.  Habits  of  Politeness:  "How  to  Behave  at  Ta- 
ble," "How  to  Behave  in  a  Conversation,"  etc. 

The  last  mentioned  topics,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
others,  lend  themselves  readily  to  simple  and  effective 
dramatization  which  arouses  interest,  and  prompts 
more  natural  and  expressive  speech  in  children. 

7.  Commands  by  Children  to  Class:   Pupils  take 
turn  in  giving  orders  to  class  at  dismissals,  at  recess, 
while    passing   or   collecting   various   materials,    etc. 
These  exercises  are  valuable  aids  in  developing  ef- 
ficiency in  oral  speech  because  they  tend  to  inspire 
courage  in  the  timid  and  backward  child,  they  show 
the  need  of  definiteness  and  precision  in  speech,  and 
they  insure  natural  rather  than  formal  speech. 

8.  Reproduction   of  a   Story:   The   original  story 
may  have  been  told  by  the  teacher,  read  from  a  book 
to  the  class,  or  read  by  the  children  themselves. 

9.  Number  Lessons  and  Number  Games. 

10.  Exposition:  "How  to  Set  the  Table,"  "How 
We  Made  a  Picture  Frame,"  "How  to  Make  a  Kite," 
etc. 

11.  Argumentative   Conversation:    "Where   to   Go 
on  an  Outing,"  "What  Game  to  Play  at  Recess,"  etc. 

This  is  only  a  partial  list  to  which  the  teacher  can 
add  by  drawing  on  her  fund  of  experience.  It  is 
submitted  merely  to  show  the  primary  teacher  that 
despite  the  simplicity  of  the  work  and  the  limited 
mental  resources  of  the  children  she  nevertheless  has 
a  list  of  topics  rich  enough  to  afford  interesting  va- 

17 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

riety  and  an  opportunity  to  break  away  from  the 
dulling  sameness  which  is  characteristic  of  much  of 
the  oral  composition  work  in  the  lower  classes. 

5.  How  Do  These  Oral  Lessons  Solve  the  Basic 
Difficulties? — We  must  now  interpret  these  oral  les- 
sons as  remedial  measures  for  the  difficulties  that 
were  outlined  at  the  beginning  of  the  chapter  and 
show  how  they  are  designed  to  answer  the  needs  of 
the  teacher  of  primary  composition.  Let  us  review, 
briefly,  the  three  problems,  the  children's  lack  of 
material  for  expression,  their  backwardness,  and  their 
expressional  limitations.  It  is  evident  that  the  variety 
and  the  nature  of  the  topics  that  are  selected  are  de.- 
signed  to  counteract  the  first  two  of  these  limitations 
for  they  give  the  child  plenty  of  subject-matter  that 
is  intensely  interesting  and  capable  of  arousing  such 
enthusiasm  as  will  transcend  the  bonds  of  self-con- 
sciousness. Once  the  child  has  caught  the  joy  of 
self-expression,  the  final  problems,  limitations  of  vo- 
cabulary and  inaccuracies  of  speech,  can  be  solved.  As 
each  child  errs,  the  teacher  judiciously  makes  the 
correction.  Constant  repetition  of  the  same  correc- 
tions of  typical  errors  will  soon  show  positive  re- 
sults. In  each  topic  the  teacher  selects  a  few  words 
and  expressions,  possibly  five  or  six,  that  are  most 
peculiar  to  it.  In  the  conversation  and  dramatization 
lesson  of  "How  to  Pass  a  Person,"  such  expressions 
as  "excuse  me,"  "beg  your  pardon,"  "polite,"  "im- 
polite," and  "rude"  are  indelibly  impressed  upon  the 
mind  of  the  child  through  repetition.  In  the  lesson 
"The  Kind  of  Dog  I  Want  for  a  Pet,"  such  words 

18 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

as  "good  appearance,"  "handsome,"  "brave,"  "cour- 
ageous," "loyal,"  etc.,  are  made  central  until  the  pu- 
pil carries  them  away  as  his  own.  The  teacher  must 
be  ever  ready  to  offer  those  words  which  each  les- 
son is  to  contribute  toward  a  richer  vocabulary.  As 
the  child  hesitates  for  want  of  a  word,  the  teacher 
suggests  it  and  thereby  keeps  the  thought  running  in 
the  pupil's  mind  and  saves  him  from  the  paralyzing 
effect  which  a  consciousness  of  his  verbal  limitations 
is  sure  to  produce.  But  these  results  will  not  follow 
from  a  haphazard  series  of  conversation  lessons.  The 
topics  must  be  carefully  selected  and  organized  into 
a  progressively  graded  series.  Each  lesson  must  be 
planned  to  enrich  the  vocabulary  and  to  correct  the 
most  flagrant  inaccuracies  in  the  speech  of  young 
pupils. 

6.  The  Danger  of  Formalism  in  Early  Work  in 
English:  Impression,  Expression,  Formal  Instruction 
the  Desired  Sequence. — The  great  danger  in  early 
composition  lessons  is  the  introduction  of  a  crushing 
formalism  which  robs  the  lesson  of  all  expressional 
pleasures  and  renders  the  topic  under  discussion  a 
mere  excuse  for  a  drill  in  mastery  of  words  or  in 
idiomatic  or  grammatical  forms.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  technical  elements  of  speech  must  grow 
naturally  out  of  preceding  discussions  of  interesting 
themes.  The  steps  in  early  language  work  can  there- 
fore be  summed  up  as  three:  (a)  impression;  (b)  ex- 
pression; (c)  formal  language  instruction^ 

The  first  concern  of  the  teacher  must  be  to  stir  the 
child's  self-activity,  so  that  it  acquires  a  liberal  stock 

19 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

of  experiences,  together  with  a  rich  imagery  of  all 
of  them.  Hence  the  lessons  in  nature  study,  in  read- 
ing, in  local  history  and  geography  and  in  manual 
training  must  be  regarded  as  forming  the  first  step  in 
composition,  for  in  all  of  these  the  child  is  acquiring 
a  large  variety  of  ideas.  But  class  instruction  in  all 
these  subjects  that  is  properly  motivated  stirs  in  each 
child  a  desire  to  reproduce  what  it  sees  clearly  or  to 
communicate  to  others  convictions  that  have  been  im- 
planted. The  more  interesting  the  impression,  the 
more  intense  is  the  child's  yearning  for  expression. 
The  expressional  phases  in  all  lessons  must  therefore 
be  looked  upon  as  exercises  in  composition,  for  they 
train  children  in  the  art  of  self-expression.  Errors 
of  vocabulary,  of  grammar,  etc.,  made  by  children 
in  the  course  of  natural  speech  should  now  form  the 
basis  of  formal  instruction  in  English.  To  deviate 
from  this  order,  impression,  expression,  formal  in- 
struction, is  to  court  a  formalism  which  deadens  all 
language  work  in  the  grades. 

Opportunities  for  Oral  Language  Lesson. — In  conclud- 
ing the  chapter  on  conversation  and  reproduction  les- 
sons, we  must  again  emphasize  the  principle  that  was 
made  basic  in  the  initial  discussion,  viz.,  the  manifold 
opportunities  that  the  teacher  finds  in  the  curriculum 
for  giving  children  the  necessary  practice  in  language 
work.  Every  subject,  even  manual  training  and  calis- 
thenics, can  be  utilized  as  material  for  language  les- 
sons. The  less  we  rely  on  the  formal  language  period 
and  the  more  we  look  upon  all  subjects  in  the  cur- 
riculum as  agents  in  developing  the  art  of  speech,  the 

20 


INFORMAL  COMPOSITION:     FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

surer  are  we  to  give  children  the  language  proficiency 
that  should  ultimately  be  developed.  In  addition  we 
must  urge  the  values  for  composition,  of  memoriza- 
tion and  recitation  of  selected  prose  and  poetry. 
These  memory  selections  give  children,  among  other 
returns,  models  of  correct  speech,  enlarged  vocabu- 
laries and  beautiful  sentiments  beautifully  expressed. 
Unless  we  look  upon  the  whole  curriculum  as  a 
scheme  to  develop  proficiency  in  language,  formal 
composition  lessons  become  both  sterile  and  stupid. 


SUGGESTED   READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  III. 


CHAPTER   III 

FORMAL  COMPOSITION  IN  THE  FIRST  FOUR 
YEARS 

The  Need  of  Formal  Language  Drills. — The  discussion 
of  the  teaching  of  composition  in  the  first  four  years 
of  the  elementary  course  has  thus  far  concerned  itself 
exclusively  with  the  means  of  stirring  and  sustaining 
natural  and  enthusiastic  speech  in  the  classroom.  The 
method  outlined  in  the  preceding  chapter  sought 
therefore  to  free  itself  from  all  formalism,  from  all 
rules  of  language,  and  from  conscious  focalization 
on  the  technique  of  speech.  The  child  saw  no  serious 
object  in  the  conversation  or  reproduction  lesson;  the 
teacher,  not  the  child,  wras  aware  of  an  attempt  to  in- 
troduce a  series  of  model  expressions,  to  occasion 
natural  communication,  or  to  increase  vocabulary. 
We  come  now  to  a  discussion  of  the  more  formal 
side  of  language  work  in  the  first  half  of  the  school 
course.  If  the  environment  of  our  pupils  were  thor- 
oughly Americanized  in  language,  as  well  as  in  cus- 
toms and  ideals,  there  would  be  no  need  of  adding  to 
the  informal  work  in  composition  previously  out- 
lined for  the  early  years.  But  when  we  realize  the 
foreign  influences  and  languages  that  make  up  the 
environment  of  many  of  our  pupils,  it  becomes  ap- 

22 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

parent  that  merely  hearing  correct  and  corrected 
speech  in  the  classroom,  will  not  serve  to  counteract 
the  persistent  impressions  of  incorrect  speech  which 
are  borne  in  on  the  vast  majority  of  children  of  for- 
eign parentage.  Even  in  the  early  years  formal  lan- 
guage lessons  must  be  given,  drills  must  be  had  on 
set  language  forms,  and  typical  errors  of  speech  must 
be  systematically  undermined  and  supplanted  by  cor- 
rect forms.  This  formal  work  in  the  primary  classes 
can  take  three  forms,  viz.:  (i)  memorisation  and 
recitation,  (2)  teaching  necessary  language  facts,  and 
(3)  correction  of  common  errors  of  speech.  Let  us 
turn  to  these  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  enumer- 
ated. 

Memorization  and  Recitation. — It  is  obvious  that 
memorization  and  recitation  of  properly  selected  prose 
and  poetry  tends,  among  other  ends,  to  enrich  a  child's 
stock  of  words  and  phrases,  to  give  him  a  series  of 
interesting  ideas  and  inspiring  ideals  in  a  form  truly 
artistic,  to  train  in  organizing  ideas  and  to  discour- 
age self-consciousness.  The  value  of  this  form  of 
language  work  in  early  classes  is  obvious,  but  the 
method  that  is  followed  determines  the  degree  to 
which  these  ends  are  attained.  Few  lessons  are  as 
stilted  and  depressing  as  a  perfunctory  recitation  of  a 
memorized  selection  in  which  each  child  recites  merely 
to  satisfy  the  teacher  that  he  has  memorized  the 
words  and  lines  in  proper  sequence.  As  the  method 
of  conducting  these  lessons  is  treated  fully  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  book,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a 
subsequent  chapter. 

23 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Learning  the  Necessary  Language  Facts. — Their  Use 
for  Certain  Classes  of  Children. — We  took  occasion 
to  note  in  a  preceding  discussion  that  the  child  whose 
own  language  abounds  with  barbarisms,  and  whose 
environment  tends  to  perpetuate  these,  must  be  given 
a  series  of  language  drills  which  will  tend  to  teach 
the  basic  forms  and  constructions  of  our  tongue. 
Mere  imitation  of  the  teacher's  English  is  not  ef- 
ficacious, for  it  cannot  counteract  all  the  contrary 
forces  in  the  child's  environment.  Rigorous  and  per- 
sistent drills  are  necessary  to  teach  these  children 
not  to  say:  "I  brang  my  books,"  "He  writ  his  les- 
sons," "He  hurled  himself,"  "It  growed  there,"  "He 
learns  me  out"  "It  stands  written"  "Every  morning 
I  put  myself  on"  (dress  myself),  "a  eye  for  a  eye," 
"five  mans  and  six  mans  is  eleven"  "five  gooses" 
"This  is  more  heavier  than  that,"  "The  boys  is  good," 
"Me  and  him  went,"  "Me  hat  and  me  coat  is  on  the 
nail,"  etc.  These  errors  are  not  imaginary.  They 
form  part  of  a  list  that  the  author  gathered  in  the 
primary  grades  in  one  school.  True,  no  one  child 
made  all  of  these  errors,  but  every  child  heard  all  of 
them.  It  is  evident  that  the  informal  work  outlined 
in  the  preceding  chapter  lacks  the  vigor  and  the  con- 
centrated effort  necessary  to  banish  such  barbarisms 
from  the  speech  of  these  children.  * 

Cautions  in  Early  Language  Lessons. — Great  care 
must  be  taken  in  planning  these  formal  drills  for  the 
early  grades.  There  are  a  number  of  cautions  that 
must  be  observed  lest  we  dissipate  the  worth  of  these 
language  lessons. 

24 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

1.  The  teacher  must  realize  that  these   drills  on 
language  forms  are  not  lessons  in  elementary  gram- 
mar.    No  attempt  must  be  made  to  introduce  termi- 
nology or  rules.     It  is  not  necessary  that  the  child 
know  why  "me  hat  and  me  coat"  must  give  way  to 
"my  hat  and  my  coat."     In  the  grammar  lesson,  the 
justification  for  the  use  of  the  possessive  form  "my" 
and  the  reasons  for  the  condemnation  of  the  objec- 
tive form,  "me"  must  be  given;  in  these  early  les- 
sons the  child  takes  language  forms  on  faith  and  the 
teacher  is  concerned  primarily  with  the  problem  of 
developing  in  the   pupils  the  habit   of  using  "my" 
rather  than  "me"  in  these  expressions. 

2.  It  must  be  remembered  that  an  isolated  language 
form  does  not  become  part  of  spontaneous  speech. 
The  child  who  recites   "my  hat,"   "my  coat,"   "my 
book,"    "my   ring,"   etc.,   nevertheless   falls   back   to 
"You  should  have  seen  'me'  team  play,"  when  en- 
gaged in  natural  conversation.     Unless  the  form  is 
taught  in  natural  context,  it  will  not  serve  to  reha- 
bilitate the  speech  of  the  child. 

3.  It  is  obvious  that  an  occasional  lesson  on  any 
correct  form  of  speech  will  not  insure  its  use.     Un- 
remitting  drills,    well-graded    and   varied    drills    are 
necessary  to  put  our  pupils  on  their  guard  against 
the   influences   of   the  incorrect  language  that  may 
assail  their  ears. 

4.  The   supervisor  of  this   work  must   remember 
that  this  part  of  the  curriculum  must  be  very  flexi- 
ble, for  the  language  facts  to  be  taught  vary  with 
each  school  district  in   the  cosmopolitan  cities  and 

25 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

towns  of  the  country.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
in  some  schools  the  list  of  language  facts  to  be  taught 
will  be  long,  while  in  others  it  will  reduce  itself  to 
only  a  very  few  facts,  or  even  none  at  all. 

Method  of  Teaching  Necessary  Language  Facts. — 
It  remains  for  us  therefore  to  indicate  clearly  how 
these  necessary  language  facts  are  to  be  taught.  To 
give  this  work  natural  context,  it  is  best  to  group  these 
language  drills  around  a  language  center.  The  New 
York  City  syllabus  offers  an  illustration  of  the  point 
in  question.  It  assigns  as  basic  for  language  drills 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  years,  the  four  types  of  sen- 
tences which  give  the  most  important  forms  of 
thought,  viz.,  (i)  what  things  do,  (2)  what  is  done 
to  things,  (3)  what  the  qualities  of  things  are,  and 
(4)  what  things  are.  How  can  these  forms  of  ex- 
pressing thought  become  the  center  of  drills  on  neces- 
sary language  facts? 

Let  us  turn  our  attention  to  the  first-type  form 
of  sentence.  The  teacher  introduces  this  type  by 
calling  on  the  children  to  tell  what  men  do  for  a  liv- 
ing. With  little  trouble  there  is  elicited  the  follow- 
ing: 

"The  farmer  plants  corn  and  wheat/' 

"Soldiers  fight  battles." 

"The  shoemaker  mends  old  shoes." 

"The  jeweler  makes  rings  and  pins." 

At  the  next  lesson  the  problem  is  to  list  what  the 
city  does  for  us.  In  like  manner  the  following  was 
obtained  from  a  fourth-year  class: 

"New  York  City  gives  us  many  parks." 

26 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

"It  sends  its  children  to  school." 
"The  fire  department  puts  out  many  fires." 
"The  health  department  saves  many  lives." 
Each  lesson  assigns  a  central  theme  around  which 
children  form  sentences  of  the  first  type.     Care  must 
be   taken   not   to   allow   these    sentences   to   become 
heterogeneous;  each  day's  lesson  must  have  its  dis- 
tinctive   center    around    which    these    sentences    are 
grouped.    Interest  is  sustained  by  the  variety  of  ideas 
contributed. 

After  children  can  give  sentences  with  a  fair  de- 
gree of  fluency,  each  group  of  expressions  may  be 
reviewed  in  an  exercise  in  which  they  try  to  find  the 
"who"  or  "what"  word  and  the  "doing"  word  of  each 
sentence.  "The  farmers  plant  corn  and  wheat"  is 
therefore  submitted  to  this  analysis  and  the  children 
conclude  that  farmers  is  the  "who"  word  and  plant 
the  "doing"  word.  In  like  manner,  "New  York  City 
gives  people  many  parks"  is  analyzed,  and  the  chil- 
dren conclude  that  New  York  City  is  the  "what" 
word  and  gives  the  "doing"  word.  This  exercise  is 
continued  for  a  number  of  lessons  until  children  gain 
facility  in  recognizing  subject  and  predicate. 

The  next  step  in  the  lesson  is  to  take  known  sen- 
tences and  require  the  children  to  keep  the  "doing" 
word  and  change  the  "who"  or  "what"  word.  "The 
fire  department  puts  out  many  fires"  thus  becomes, 
"The  firemen  put  out  many  fires"  "Policemen  put 
out  many  fires"  "Brave  men  put  out  many  fires"  etc. 
In  the  same  way  children  are  required  to  keep  the 
"who"  or  "what"  word  and  change  the  "doing"  word. 

27 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

The  original  sentence  quoted  above  then  becomes, 
"The  fire  department  saves  many  lives,"  "The  fire 
department  answers  the  fire  alarms''  "The  fire  de- 
partment sends  out  the  engines"  etc.  Such  synthetic 
exercises  give  children  practice  in  making  sentences 
and  develop  in  them  a  feeling  for  the  function  of  the 
subject  and  predicate. 

The  next  progressive  set  of  drills  requires  a  change 
of  number  of  the  "who"  or  "what"  word.  Thus,  for 
the  first  of  these  drills  the  teacher  gives  only  regular 
nouns,  the  plurals  of  which  are  formed  merely  by 
adding  "s"  or  "es."  The  sentence  "The  farmers  plant 
corn  and  wheat"  is  written  on  the  board  and  the 
children  are  required  to  change  to  the  singular,  "The 
farmer  plants  corn  and  wheat" ;  or  the  teacher  may 
give  the  singular,  "The  jeweler  makes  rings  and  pins," 
and  ask  for  the  plural,  <{The  jewelers  make  rings  and 
pins"  In  the  succeeding  drills  the  children  learn  of 
nouns,  the  plurals  of  which  are  formed  by  changing 
"y"  to  "i"  and  adding  "es";  of  others  where  "f"  is 
changed  to  "v,"  and  "es"  is  added,  and  of  still  others 
that  must  be  changed  in  form  entirely,  like  "ox, 
oxen,"  "tooth,  teeth,"  "child,  children,"  etc.  In  this 
series  of  drills  the  child  not  only  learns  the  plurals 
of  useful  nouns  but  also  develops  a  sensitivity  for 
the  agreement  of  subject  and  predicate.  After  much 
repetition  the  child  learns  that  it  is  wrong  to  say  "the 
farmers  plants,"  just  as  it  is  incorrect  to  say  "many 
tooths."  In  neither  case  does  the  teacher  give  the 
reason. 

Up  to  this  point  the  sentences  have  been  declarative 

28 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

in  form.  Interrogative  sentences  are  now  taken  up. 
The  teacher  asks,  "Do  the  farmers  plant  their  corn?" 
and,  "Does  the  farmer  plant  his  corn?"  and  the  chil- 
dren reply  respectively,  "Yes,  they  do  plant  their 
corn"  and  "Yes,  he  does  plant  his  corn/'  The  same 
groups  of  sentences  are  now  reviewed  in  their  inter- 
rogative form  and  the  child  receives  further  drill  on 
plural  forms,  learns  the  use  of  the  auxiliary  "do," 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  English  language  and  acquires 
a  feeling  for  the  agreement  in  number  of  pronoun  and 
antecedent. 

The  negative  statements  are  now  the  subjects  for  a 
series  of  graded  drills.  The  teacher  asks,  ((Do  farm- 
ers waste  any  time?3'  and  the  children  reply,  "No, 
they  do  not  waste  any  time"  or,  "No,  he  does  not 
waste  any  time"  if  the  singular  is  required.  These 
negative  drills,  given  patiently  and  consistently,  will 
undermine  the  double  negative,  so  frequent  in  the 
speech  of  those  children  whose  English  is  acquired  on 
the  street. 

What  was  done  with  the  first  type,  what  things  do, 
can  be  done  with  the  second  type,  what  is  done  to 
things.  The  third  and  the  fourth  types,  the  qualities 
of  things  and  what  things  are,  offer  even  wider  range 
of  drills  in  language  structure  and  vocabulary.  The 
following  are  suggestions  for  possible  language  les- 
sons based  on  the  third  type  of  expression : 

I.  Oral  Composition.  Topic:  "The  Park."  Sen- 
tences of  third  type  elicited:  The  park  is  large,  The 
trees  are  beautiful,  The  flowers  are  sweet,  The  foun- 
tain is  pretty,  etc. 

29 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

2.  Analysis  showing  "who"  or  "what"  word  and 
"quality"   word. 

3.  Keep  "who"  or  "what"  word  and  change  "qual- 
ity" word;  vice  versa. 

4.  Make    sentences    of    the    following:    the    green 
leaves,  the  pretty  fountain,  etc. 

5.  State  whether  the  following  things  are  hard  or 
soft,  cool  or  warm,  large  or  small,  rough  or  smooth, 
etc.    Give  a  list  of  nouns,  and  elicit  the  sentences  from 
the  children. 

6.  State  opposite  qualities  or  state  other  words  to 
express  the  same  quality :    The  day  is  warm,  The  day 
is  cool,  The  day  is  chilly,  etc.,  hence  a  vocabulary  drill. 

7.  Plurals  and  Singulars. 

8.  Interrogative  Form. 

9.  Negative  Form. 

10.  Given  any  topic,  "The  Snow,"  for  instance,  re- 
quire sentences  of  all  types,  as  follows:  "The  snow 
falls  on  the  ground.  It  is  shoveled  by  men  and  boys. 
Snow  is  very  cold  and  white,"  etc. 

The  writer  does  not  think  that  these  four  types 
form  the  best  language  center  for  a  drill  on  the  neces- 
sary language  facts.  They  are  used  for  illustration 
because  they  are  assigned  in  many  courses  of  study 
and  they  serve  to  show  that  the  elementary  language 
lessons  can  be  freed  from  cumbrous  terminology, 
and  yet  be  made  the  means  of  teaching  the  child  the 
structure  of  the  sentence,  the  function  of  its  parts, 
the  plural  forms,  the  agreement  between  subject  and 
predicate,  the  agreement  between  pronoun  and  ante- 
cedent, the  use  of  auxiliary  verbs,  the  correct  form 

30 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

of  the  negative  statement.  These  four  types  of  sen- 
tences may  also  be  made  the  means  of  developing 
richer  and  more  flexible  vocabularies.  The  school 
where  most  of  the  children  are  of  foreign  birth  can 
well  afford,  therefore,  to  spend  two  years  on  these 
formal  drills. 

The  Systematic  Correction  of  Common  Errors  of  Speech. 
— When  Necessary. — There  are  two  methods  of 
teaching  children  the  necessary  language  facts  and 
instilling  in  them  habits  of  correct  form  in  elementary 
language  structures.  The  first  is  by  the  method  just 
outlined — by  a  systematic,  graded,  positive  series  of 
drills  on  language  forms.  The  second  method  is  the 
negative  which  teaches  only  those  language  forms 
that  children  habitually  misuse.  The  first  is  the 
method  of  prevention;  the  second  the  method  of  cure. 
Courses  of  study  in  cosmopolitan  cities  prescribe  the 
systematic  correction  of  typical  errors  of  speech  for 
all  grades  beginning  with  the  second  or  the  third  year. 

Limitations  in  the  Prevailing  Method  of  Dealing 
with  Common  Errors  of  Speech. — What  is  the  usual 
method  which  teachers  follow  in  their  attempt  to  rid 
the  speech  of  their  pupils  of  the  typical  mistakes? 
Very  often  a  teacher  culls  all  the  common  language 
errors  which  experience  has  taught  her  abound  in 
children's  speech.  These  are  taken  up,  one  by  one, 
corrected  arbitrarily,  drilled  on  in  appropriate  exer- 
cises and  dismissed  for  a  second  common  error  which 
is  similarly  treated  in  the  next  language  drill.  One 
day  the  lesson  is  on  "seen  and  saw,"  a  second  on 
"done  and  did,"  a  third  on  "haven't  no,"  a  fourth 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

on  "brang  and  brung,"  until  every  error  on  the  list 
has  been  dignified  by  a  separate  period.  Very  often, 
the  lesson  ends  with  an  arbitrary  generalization  of  the 
type,  "Seen  can  be  used  only  with  have  or  has.3' 

What  is  the  usual  result  of  such  pedagogical  prac- 
tice? In  each^grade  the  entire  list  of  common  errors 
is  corrected  but  in  each  succeeding  grade  the  very 
same  errors  are  again  studied  with  the  same  futile 
result.  There  are  two  reasons  which  account  for  this 
waste.  The  first  reason  is  lack  of  drill.  We  need  a 
sledge-hammer  blow;  the  common  method  of  dealing 
with  these  errors  of  speech  makes  them  all  pass  before 
the  class  in  a  happy  merry-go-round  while  we  ap- 
ply the  feather  duster  to  each.  These  incorrect  forms 
are  habits;  the  problem  confronting  us  is  how  to  break 
an  old  habit  and  inculcate  a  new  one.  Hard  unre- 
lenting drill,  untiring  repetition,  are  the  price  of  habit 
formation.  The  prevailing  method  described  above 
surely  fails  to  pay  the  price.  Secondly,  the  lessons 
are  too  formal.  The  drills  are  not  natural  enough, 
nor  are  the  correct  forms  learned  through  natural 
context  in  the  course  of  natural  expression. 

A  Method  of  Dealing  with  Common  Errors  of 
Speech. — What  mode  of  teaching  can  we  suggest  in 
dealing  with  common  inaccuracies  of  speech?  The 
following  procedure  offers  a  more  rational  and  natural 
form  of  exercise  and  also  provides  sufficient  drill.  All 
the  common  errors  found  in  children's  oral  speech  and 
written  work  should  be  listed  and  arranged  in  a  graded 
series  by  the  supervisor.  Such  a  tabulation  would  give 
about  thirty  to  thirty-six  common  forms  that  children 

32 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FC 

constantly  misuse.  Each  grade,  begin 
second  year,  should  have  a  definite  m 
errors  assigned,  three  or  four  in  the  lot 
or  six,  in  addition  to  a  review  of  those/ 
in  the  higher  grades.  With  responsibility 
five  or  six  forms,  each  teacher  could  give  such  drill 
and  application  as  would  permanently  undermine  these 
common  errors.  Let  us  assume  that  the  teacher 
of  a  third-year  class  must  undermine,  (i)  "it  is 
me,"  (2)  double  negative,  (3)  "I  seen  it,"  (4) 
"I  done  it,"  and  (5)  "I  brang  my  lunch."  The 
first  error  is  selected  for  study  and  drill.  The  teacher 
puts  on  the  board  or  better  still  on  a  long  cardboard 
the  following  model  sentence :  "It  is  I  who  am  knock- 
ing," said  Little  Red  Riding  Hood.  Then  comes 
the  following  drill: 

Teacher:  "What  was  Little  Red  Riding  Hood 
asked?" 

Pupil:    "Who  is  knocking?" 

Teacher:    "What  did  she  reply?" 

Pupil:  "It  is  me." 

Teacher:  "Look  at  the  blackboard."  The  child 
who  made  the  mistake  is  given  a  chance  to  correct  his 
answer. 

Teacher:   "William,  who  spoke  when " 

Pupil:    "It  was  me." 

Teacher:  "Answer  as  Red  Riding  Hood  would." 

Pupil:    "It  was  I  who  spoke,"  etc. 

The  type  sentence  is  kept  in  full  view  of  the  class 
for  a  week  or  two,  depending  upon  the  gravity  of  the 
error  and  the  frequency  of  misuse  of  the  correct 

33 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

onjrm.  It  becomes  the  basis  of  short  daily  drills  oj 
t  two  or  three  minutes  in  the  morning  and  again  in  th< 
afternoon.  Other  model  sentences  of  the  same  gram 
matical  construction  are  presented  and  the  drills  ar< 
continued.  The  initial  sentence  seems  to  become  par 
of  the  children  for  it  is  a  permanent  standard  foi 
reference  in  the  future.  At  any  time  when  the  chile 
gives  the  objective  "me"  for  the  nominative  "I/ 
the  teacher  simply  refers  to  the  standard  sentence  b] 
asking,  "What  did  Little  Red  Riding  Hood  say! 
Now  correct  your  own  sentence." 

In  the  same  way,  this  series  of  drill  lessons  is  fol- 
lowed by,  "  'I  am  not  afraid ;  I  have  no  fear/  said  th< 
brave  Columbus."  This  becomes  the  standard  or  typ< 
sentence  for  a  series  of  questions  in  which  the  chile 
is  asked,  "Have  you  money?"  "Have  you  paper  anc 
pencil?"  "Has  he  courage?"  etc.  In  each  case  th< 
teacher  requires  the  two  forms  of  expressing  th( 
negative.  The  child  may  reply,  "I  have  no  fear"  01 
"I  haven't  any  fear,"  but  he  is  led  to  avoid,  "I  haven' 
no  fear."  These  daily  drills  are  again  continued  foi 
about  a  fortnight,  when  the  correct  form  of  the  nega- 
tive becomes  part  of  the  child's  expressional  stock 
When,  in  the  future,  a  pupil  tells  his  teacher,  "I  haven'l 
no  pencil,"  he  is  promptly  told  to  recall  the  type  sen- 
tence about  Columbus  and  model  his  answer  accord- 
ingly. In  such  a  method  of  organization  and  proce- 
dure the  necessary  continued  and  persistent  drill  can  bf 
given  to  each  error,  and  natural  context  is  used  tc 
make  permanent  the  correct  form.  Each  teacher  car 
now  be  held  responsible  because  the  assignments  an 

34 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

definite  for  each  grade.  Through  such  a  method  the 
flagrant  errors  of  common  speech  can  be  eradicated 
by  the  time  the  child  completes  his  fifth  year  in  the 
elementary  course,  and  teachers  in  the  last  three  years 
would  then  be  spared  the  discouraging  task  of  re- 
peating the  unsuccessful  work  of  so  many  lower 
grades  in  addition  to  teaching  the  advanced  language 
lessons  which  presuppose  a  foundation  of  elementary 
knowledge. 

Development  of  Efficiency  in  Early  Language  Work  Is 
Slow  and  Difficult, — Throughout  the  slow,  tedious  and 
persistent  drills  that  characterize  the  language  les- 
sons of  the  early  grades,  the  teacher  must  not  become 
discouraged.  Experience  alone  can  impress  the 
teacher  with  the  slowness  and  the  difficulty  of  de- 
veloping efficiency  in  oral  expression  among  chil- 
dren. The  teacher  inexperienced  in  this  phase  of  ele- 
mentary instruction  loses  heart  at  the  slow  rate  of 
progress  in  the  linguistic  development  of  her  pupils. 
But  this  slow  maturing  efficiency  in  language  is  to 
be  expected  when  we  consider  the  many  causes  that 
are  operative  in  producing  it.  We  must  now  turn  to 
them. 

i.  Efficiency  in  Oral  Expression  Is  Usually  Spe- 
cial, not  General. — People  often  speak  fluently  and 
coherently  on  one  subject  but  are  exceedingly  poor 
in  conversational  powers  on  other  topics.  The  pro- 
verbial example  of  the  professor  who  is  an  interesting 
speaker  in  his  specialty  but  a  bore  in  other  fields  of 
human  interest,  illustrates  this  phenomenon.  There 
are  students  who  are  exceedingly  intelligent  in  dis- 

35 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

cussing  athletic  topics  but  who  are  inane  when  they 
participate  in  general  class  discussions.  Children  who 
are  alert  and  winning  in  speech  during  play  may 
show  a  decided  lack  of  linguistic  ability  in  formal 
classroom  recitation. 

2.  Efficiency  of  Speech  Is  Often  a  Native  Endow- 
ment.— Linguistic   ability   is   with   many   children   a 
birth  gift.     This  explains  why  so  many  people  are 
delightful  speakers  on  any  topic  and  can  spin  a  clever 
verbal  thread  around  any  idea.     We  listen  to  them 
with  rapt  attention,  giving  ourselves  to  their  every 
word,  only  to  find  in  the  end  that  they  have  con- 
tributed nothing  of  value. 

3.  Oral  Speech  Is  Usually  Developed  as  Need  Is 
Felt. — The  individual  who  lives  a  life  of  social  con- 
tact that  prompts  expression  soon  finds  that  the  abil- 
ity to  express  himself  grows  in  proportion  to  need 
and  use.     Country  children  are  hence  more  retiring 
and  less  communicative  than  their  talkative  and  impul- 
sive city  cousins. 

4.  The  School  May  Repress  Linguistic  Develop- 
ment.— The  school   with  its  organization  and  disci- 
pline, recognizing  not  the  individual  but  the  group,  is 
usually  repressive.     Free  and  spontaneous  speech  is 
not  allowed;  the  child  as  a  member  of  a  class  has  not 
the  opportunity  to   express  himself   as   often  as  he 
ought  to,   and  finally  the   systematic  recitation  kills 
voluntary  speech,  for  the  child  must  express  the  book 
or  the  teacher  rather  than  himself. 

Lessons    for    the    School. — This    analysis    of    the 
causes  of  slow  and  labored  development  of  efficiency 

36 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

in  oral  expression  has  its  lessons  for  the  school,  (a) 
It  shows  us  clearly  that  every  study  must  be  a  lan- 
guage lesson.  Correct  speech  cannot  be  habituated 
unless  we  make  this  concession  to  the  place  of  Eng- 
lish in  the  curriculum,  (b)  Wherever  possible,  chil- 
dren should  be  encouraged  to  talk  freely  in  the  course 
of  the  recitation.  Topics  assigned  to  a  pupil  should  be 
broad  and  should  call  for  expression  in  a  number  of 
sentences.  The  recitation  that  is  made  up  of  a  series 
of  close-fitting  petty  questions,  whose  answers  require 
the  mere  ejaculation,  of  a  word  or  a  phrase,  is  a 
means  of  repressing  speech  and  retarding  linguistic 
progress.  The  topical  method,  rather  than  the  petty 
question  method  of  the  recitation,  should  be  followed 
wherever  convenient  and  practical.  (c)  Overcon- 
scientious  and  painfully  accurate  teachers  must  re- 
member that  it  is  not  advisable  to  curb  the  child's 
flow  of  speech  by  minute  corrections.  Let  the  child 
have  his  say,  let  him  speak  his  mind,  then  offer  the 
corrections,  the  changes,  and  the  modifications  that 
are  necessary.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  child 
should  always  be  interrupted  with  such  petty  sug- 
gestions as,  "Answer  in  a  full  sentence."  This  sacred 
regard  for  the  "full  sentence"  produces  artificiality 
and  stiltedness  of  speech  characteristic  of  classroom 
recitations.  Adults  do  not  always  speak  in  complete 
sentences;  what  justification  have  we  for  imposing 
this  standard  on  pupils?  (d)  Finally,  teachers 
should  always  encourage  fluent  and  coherent  speech 
among  children.  If  we  are  to  seek  the  larger  values 
in  our  work,  petty  facts  must  be  sacrificed  for  proper 

37 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

form.  When  a  child  formulates  his  answer  in  well- 
rounded,  sequential  sentences,  it  must  be  received  with 
words  of  praise  and  held  up  to  the  others  in  his 
class  as  an  enviable  model  worthy  of  their  imita- 
tion. 

WRITTEN    WORK    IN    THE    PRIMARY    GRADES 

Its  Minor  Position. — In  the  early  years  written  com- 
position can  be  accorded,  at  best,  a  subordinate  place 
when  compared  to  the  varied  forms  of  oral  exer- 
cise. Too  early  an  insistence  on  written  composition 
works  irreparable  harm.  The  child  loses  in  expres- 
sional  power,  for  when  the  difficulties  of  penmanship, 
form,  spelling,  capitalization  and  punctuation  con- 
front him,  all  expression  is  at  once  killed.  We  must 
wait  until  the  elementary  requirements  in  spelling, 
capitalization,  penmanship,  etc.,  have  become  habitu- 
ated before  written  work  is  begun.  Written  compo-  . 
sition  in  the  first  three  years  is  hence  almost  neg- 
ligible, for  the  child  is  then  acquiring  technical 
and  formal  habits  in  language.  It  is  in  the 
fourth  year  that  the  written  work  assumes  any  seri- 
ousness of  form  and  content,  for  now  written  com- 
positions of  two  paragraphs  should  be  attempted. 
The  methods  to  be  suggested  are  very  much  like 
those  that  we  shall  study  for  the  upper  grades  with, 
however,  such  modifications  as  common-sense  and 
practical  experience  would  dictate.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  primary  classes  the  child  follows  the 
model  more  faithfully,  imitation  is  more  slavish,  the 

38 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

preparatory  oral  drill  deals  with  a  greater  number 
of  details  of  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  etc., 
and  the  models  are  imitated  for  their  very  form  as 
well  as  for  their  spirit. 

The  Transition  from  Oral  to  Written  Composition. — 
It  is  well,  however,  to  note  how  the  first  written  com- 
position is  to  be  introduced,  how  the  transition  is  to 
be  made  so  that  whatever  efficiency  the  child  has 
acquired  in  oral  expression  can  be  transferred  to  the 
written  exercises.  It  must  be  remembered  that  abil- 
ity in  oral  expression  is  no  guarantee  of  equal  ef- 
ficiency in  written  expression.  Graphic  expression 
differs  psychologically  as  well  as  physiologically  from 
oral  expression.  This  is  why  children  efficient  in 
oral  composition  find  that  all  ideas  seem  to  disap- 
pear instantaneously  when  they  are  confronted  with 
pen  and  paper.  How  shall  we  aid  them  in  their  dif- 
ficulty? 

Let  the  teacher  assign  the  topic,  "Yesterday's  Fire 
Drill,"  and  put  it  on  the  blackboard.  The  children 
are  now  told  that  they  are  to  write  a  composition 
on  it,  hence  they  copy  the  title  on  their  papers.  The 
teacher  then  puts  on  the  board  the  first  question,  the 
answer  of  which  will  be  the  first  sentence  of  their 
composition.  The  questions  are  so  worded  that  they 
contain  the  words  and  phrases  necessary  in  the  for- 
mulation of  the  answer.  After  the  answer  is  elicited 
orally  the  children  write  it  on  their  papers.  The 
following  form  may  be  used  both  for  the  blackboard 
work  of  the  teacher  and  the  children's  exercise  on 
paper : 

39 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Teacher's  Blackboard        Children's     Answers     on 
Questions  Paper 

I.  Did  we  have  a  fire          i.  We  had  a  fire  drill 

drill    yesterday?    2.    Did  yesterday.      2.  The    four 

the    four    bells    ring   out  bells   rang  out  loud  and 

loud  and  clear?     3.  Did  clear.       3.  We    did    not 

you  know  whether  there  know  whether  there  was 

was   a    fire    or   not?     4.  a    fire    or    not.      4.  The 

Were   the   children  quiet  children   were   quiet   and 

and  quick?     5.  Was  the  quick.       5.  The     teacher 

teacher  pleased  with  the  was     pleased     with     the 

drill?  drill. 

The  answers  written  by  the  children  are  only  tran- 
scripts of  the  words  used  by  the  teacher.  Neverthe- 
less, when  taken  together,  they  show  good  sequence 
and  make  up  a  well-organized  paragraph.  This 
method  is  pursued  until  some  confidence  is  developed 
and  transitional  difficulties  are  in  a  measure  overcome. 
After  that,  the  model  is  presented  and  studied,  tran- 
scribed or  imitated  as  the  case  may  require,  but  the 
general  method  will  be  only  a  modification  of  the  pro- 
cedure to  be  suggested  for  the  grammar  grades. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

ARNOLD,  F.  Special  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  203- 
224.    S.  Mandel,  27  St.  Nicholas  Place,  N.  Y. 

BLOUNT  and  NORTHUP.     Language  Lessons.     Henry 
Holt  &  Co. 

40 


FORMAL   COMPOSITION:    FIRST  FOUR  YEARS 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.  The  Teaching  of 
English,  pp.  121-144. 

CHUBB,  P.  The  Teaching  of  English,  chaps.  Ill  and 
IV.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

COOLEY,  ALICE  W.  Language  Teaching  in  the  Grades, 
especially  chap.  III.  Houghton-Mifflin  Co. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  The  Elementary  School  Course  in 
English,  pp.  11-26;  pp.  57-96.  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press. 

KLAPPER,  PAUL.  Teaching  Children  to  Read,  chap. 
VII,  Parts  B,  C.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.  Linguistic  Development  and  Educa- 
tion, chaps.  I,  II,  VI,  X,  XI,  XII.  The  Macmillan 
Co. 

.  Elementary  School  Curriculum,  First  Year, 

Teachers'  College  Record,  Jan.,  1906. 


CHAPTER   IV 

COMPOSITION  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 
THE    SELECTION    OF    A    PROPER    SUBJECT 

The  Method- whole  in  Composition. — Careful  and  thor- 
ough treatment  of  a  composition  lesson  necessitates 
three  periods  that  are  distinct  in  aim  and  procedure. 
Briefly  we  may  characterize  these  as  follows:  (i) 
the  period  of  oral  preparation  in  which  the  science 
of  composition  is  taught — this  is  the  oral  teaching 
period  in  which  the  teacher  leads  and  the  child  is 
learning  the  laws  of  language;  (2)  the  period  of 
written  composition  in  which  the  child  is  given  every 
opportunity  to  express  himself  and  acquire  the  art  of 
composition,  and  (3)  the  period  of  correction,  the  aim 
and  scope  of  which  are  apparent. 

These  three  periods  are  usually  given  on  three  sep- 
'arate  days  but  any  two  of  these  may  follow  on  the 
same  day  as  the  exigencies  of  special  circumstances 
and  classes  may  demand.  The  teacher  seeking  con- 
structive programs  of  work  need  hardly  be  reminded 
that  no  method  has  universal  application  in  to  to. 
Some  parts  must  be  omitted,  others  modified,  and  new 
devices  introduced  to  adjust  any  method  to  the  spe- 
cific problems  of  a  particular  class.  But  every  meth- 

42 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE   GRAMMAR    GRADES 

od  that  merits  pedagogical  approval  is  based  on 
sound  principle  and  worthy  aim.  In  applying  a 
method,  the  teacher  must  be  sure  that  despite  the 
changes  and  the  additions  that  are  made,  the  justi- 
fying principle  has  been  retained.  Any  method  that 
is  not  subjected  to  personal  scrutiny,  to  modification 
in  an  attempt  to  adjust  it  to  specific  needs,  becomes 
a  pedagogical  strait- jacket  and  inevitably  leads  to 
failure. 

The  Preparatory  Period. — The  method  of  teaching 
composition  in  the  grammar  grades  is  determined 
by  the  same  considerations  as  those  which  govern 
the  method  in  the  primary  grades,  viz.,  the  basic  dif- 
ficulties that  confront  the  children.  We  must  stop, 
therefore,  to  note  the  problems  that  make  composi- 
tion teaching  a  difficult  task  for  the  teacher.  In  the 
main  we  may  group  these  under  three  heads: 

i.  Lack  of  Material  Worth  Expressing. — At  first 
thought  this  difficulty  seems  slight  and  only  of  pass- 
ing importance,  but  a  moment's  consideration  brings 
contiction  to  the  contrary.  College  students  when 
asked  to  select  their  own  topics  for  debates,  essays, 
and  the  like,  experience  a  feeling  of  hopelessness  as 
they  take  mental  stock.  They  have  many  ideas,  they 
have  studied  many  subjects,  but  none  of  them  seems 
big  and  urgent,  and  worthy  of  expression.  If  this 
is  true  of  students  who  have  attained  some  degree  of 
maturity  and  whose  minds  have  been  subjected  to  the 
broadening  influence  of  study,  how  true  is  it  of  the 
child  with  immature  mind  and  narrow  personal  as- 
pect of  the  world. 

43 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

2.  Lack  of  Organisation   of  Ideas. — Children  do 
not  feel  the  need  for  sequence  and  systematization 
of  facts.     They  ramble  through  their  subject  in  aim- 
less, discursive  style;  they  do  not  know  that  "to  com- 
pose" one  must  systematize  his  ideas  before  giving 
expression  to  them. 

3.  Limitations   of  Speech. — Having  met  the   first 
two  difficulties,  we  are  confronted  by  the  third — ex- 
pressional   deficiencies.      These   may  be   summed  up 
under   (a)   involved  and  confused  forms  of  expres- 
sion, (b)  incorrect  forms  of  speech,  and   (c)  limita- 
tions in  variety  and  extensiveness  of  vocabulary.     In 
developing  the   method   of   teaching   composition   in 
the  grammar  grades  we  shall  follow  the  sequence  in 
which  these  difficulties  are   stated.     We   turn   then 
to  the  main  problem  of  the  present  chapter. 

THE    SELECTION    OF    THE    SUBJECT 

The  Sources  of  Subject-matter. — Every  child  has  two 
rich  sources  of  subject-matter  for  expression;  two 
great  reservoirs  which  can  be  tapped  for  material  for 
compositions.  These  we  may  term  the  direct  source 
and  the  indirect  source. 

The  Direct  Source. — The  direct  source  sums  up 
all  composition  material  that  can  be  obtained  from 
the  child's  fund  of  experience,  from  his  creative  im- 
agination, and  from  the  host  of  incidents  and  stories 
that  were  heard  or  read.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
child  is  normal  and  has  lived  his  short  life  in  an  ac- 
tive society,  guarantees  a  response  from  this  per- 
sonal source.  The  responses  which  can  thus  be  elic- 

44 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

ited  from  the  children  are  limited  only  by  the  in- 
genuity and  the  sympathy  of  the  teacher. 

Concrete  illustrations  are  more  suggestive  and  con- 
vincing to  the  teacher  whose  composition  work  does 
not  progress  because  of  the  limited  number  of  ap- 
propriate subjects.  Let  us  turn  to  a  few.  What  a 
host  of  possibilities  do  we  actualize  when  we  ask  the 
child  to  begin  its  composition  with,  "The  match  that 
was  dropped  on  the  floor  of  the  barn  was  not  lost 

because "  Children  in  a  sixth-year  class  suggested 

the  following  developments  in  their  compositions. 
These  are  given  in  a  summarized  form. 

Child  A:  A  tramp  in  search  of  shelter  steals  into 
the  barn.  He  accidentally  steps  on  the  match  and 
sets  fire  to  the  structure.  The  peril  of  the  tramp; 
the  rescue.  The  tramp  turns  out  to  be  the  long  lost 
and  wayward  son  of  the  owner.  Reconciliation  and 
reform. 

Child  B :  A  rainy  and  dismal  day.  The  children  of 
the  owner  at  play  in  the  barn.  The  match  stepped 
on.  The  spluttering  not  heard  in  the  general  noise 
of  the  game.  The  fire.  The  rescue  by  the  arch  en- 
emy of  the  boy  at  play  in  the  barn.  The  reward  of 
the  rescuer;  friendship  renewed. 

Child  C:  A  rat  in  the  barn.  The  fire.  Total  de- 
struction of  the  barn  with  its  stock  of  the  owner's 
wealth.  Poverty  of  the  farmer.  Moral  of  the  tale. 

The  conceptions  of  these  three  children  are  given 
to  illustrate  the  many  possibilities  suggested  by  such 
an  appeal  to  productive  imagination.  Similar  top- 
ics can  readily  be  invented  by  the  sympathetic 

45 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

and  resourceful  teacher,  who  can  enter  into  the  spirit 
that  must  pervade  the  composition  lesson.  In  a  fifth- 
year  class,  the  topic,  "What  I  Found  Under  a  Stone," 
was  assigned  for  plot  invention,  preparatory  to  the 
writing  of  the  composition.  Through  questions  and 
suggestions  the  teacher  stirred  the  children's  memo- 
ries of  such  incidents  and  experiences  as  would 
readily  lend  themselves  to  the  building  of  a  new  situ- 
ation suited  to  the  given  topic.  The  richness  and  di- 
versity of  the  results  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing plots  evolved,  in  the  main,  by  the  children: 

PLOT  i 

The  stone  lifted.  The  opening  of  a  cave.  The  cave  en- 
tered. The  home  of  a  robber  band.  Death  threats.  Joins 
robber  band.  Gains  their  confidence.  Leads  an  expedition. 
Leads  robber  to  capture. 

PLOT  2 

Cave,  robbers,  death  threats,  as  in  first  plot.  Pleading  by 
a  masked  member  of  the  band.  Life  spared.  Escape  with 
this  unknown  friend.  Recognition — lost  and  wayward  friend. 
Reformation. 

PLOT  3 

Stone  lifted.  Bag  of  money  found.  Seek  owners.  None 
found.  Money  divided  with  friend.  Story  of  the  life  of  evil 
and  ruin  of  the  one  and  the  life  of  social  service  and  happi- 
ness of  the  other. 

PLOT  4 

An  inventor,  unsuccessful  and  discouraged,  walks  in  the 
woods.  Sits  on  the  stone  to  rest.  Stone  moves  and  he  lifts 
it.  Finds  a  motto,  "Perseverance  brings  success."  Curiosity 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

as  to  meaning.     Search  for  meaning.     A  message  of  hope 
for  him.    Perseverance  and  final  success. 

Excellent  results  are  obtained  by  appealing  to  this 
direct  source  by  such  a  model  as  "Der  kleine 
Johannes,"  given  in  Maxwell  and  Johnson's  "School 
Composition."  It  is  reproduced  for  the  convenience 
of  the  reader. 

LITTLE  JOHANNES 

It  was  warm  by  the  pond,  and  still  as  death.  The  sun, 
flushed  and  tired  from  its  day's  work,  seemed  to  be  resting 
for  a  moment  on  the  top  of  the  distant  ridge  of  dunes  be- 
fore diving  below.  Almost  perfectly  the  smooth  water  re- 
flected its  glowing  face.  The  overhanging  leaves  of  the 
beech  took  advantage  of  the  stillness  to  gaze  intently  at 
themselves  in  the  mirror.  The  solitary  heron,  who  was 
standing  on  one  foot  between  the  broad  leaves  of  the  water- 
lilies,  forgot  that  he  had  gone  out  to  catch  frogs,  and  stared 
in  front  of  him,  lost  in  thought. 

Then  Johannes  came  to  the  little  grass-plot  to  see  the 
cloud  grotto.  Plump !  plump !  the  frogs  sprang  from  the 
shore.  The  mirror  broke  into  ripples,  the  sun  picture  sepa- 
rated into  broad  stripes,  and  the  beech  leaves  rustled  crossly, 
for  they  had  not  looked  at  themselves  sufficiently. 

Fast  bound  to  the  naked  roots  of  the  beech  lay  a  little  old 
boat.  Johannes  had  been  strictly  forbidden  to  get  into  it. 
Oh,  how  strong  the  temptation  was  this  evening!  Already 
the  clouds  were  forming  themselves  into  an  awful  gateway, 
behind  which  the  sun  would  go  to  rest.  Glittering  little 
clouds  ranged  themselves  in  lines  at  the  sides,  like  a  body- 
guard in  golden  armor.  The  surface  of  the  water  glowed 
also,  and  red  sparks  flew  like  arrows  through  the  reeds. 

Slowly  Johannes  unfastened  the  cord  of  the  boat  from 
the  beech  roots.  To  float  there  in  the  midst  of  that  splen- 
dor !  Presto,  the  dog  had  already  sprung  into  the  boat,  and, 

47 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

before  his  master  had  made  up  his  mind,  the  reeds  bent  and 
pushed  them  both  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  setting  sun. 
(Translated   from   the   Dutch  of  "Der  kleine  Johannes," 
by  Frederik  van  Eeden.) 

The  children  study  the  model  until  they  see  the 
grandeur  of  the  picture;  then  they  are  required  to 
complete  the  story  as  their  fancies  see  it.  The  range 
of  dramatic  possibilities  varies  with  the  age,  the  grade, 
and  the  native  abilities  of  the  pupils.  A  few  of  many 
good  results  are  given. 

Martin  S.,  aged  twelve,  in  a  sixth-year  class,  sug- 
gested that  a  sudden  storm  which  came,  "soon  broke 
the  mirror  with  angry  waves  that  rocked  the  boat 
to  and  fro."  Der  kleine  Johannes  now  became  fright- 
ened and  clung  to  the  floor  of  the  boat  for  safety. 
"As  darkness  fell  the  rocking  boat  put  Johannes  to 
sleep."  In  the  fury  of  the  storm  that  followed  the 
boat  capsized  and  the  unfortunate  lad  "never  awoke 
to  realize  that  he  too  'had  set  off  in  the  direction  of 
the  setting  sun.' '  This  little  drama,  charming  and 
tender  in  its  conception,  bespeaks  an  emotional  refine- 
ment not  usual  in  the  impulsive  and  ruthless  lad  of 
twelve. 

Such  a  model  opens  up  a  vista  of  possibilities  which 
make  it  appropriate  for  almost  any  grammar  grade, 
as  is  proved  by  the  following  two  products  written  by 
children  in  the  last  year  of  the  school  course.  The  com- 
positions as  given  are  accurate  reproductions  of  the 
children's  results  except  for  the  correction  of  a  few 
minor  errors,  which  they  themselves  corrected  when 
the  compositions  were  returned  to  them. 

48 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

LITTLE  JOHANNES 

Par.     I.     Introduction. 

a.  Time. 

b.  Place. 
Par.    II.     Little  Johannes. 

a.  His  longing. 

b.  His  dream. 
Par.  III.     Home  again. 

It  was  a  warm,  sultry  day  in  summer.  The  lake  lay  with- 
out a  ripple  on  its  face.  Above,  the  silver  birch  stood  ma- 
jestically reflecting  its  leaves  and  form.  Somewhat  off  from 
this  stood  a  lone  heron  solemnly  standing  on  one  foot  like 
a  sentinel  gazing  at  its  own  reflection  in  the  lake,  forgetting 
that  it  had  come  down  to  the  lake  to  catch  frogs. 

All  of  a  sudden  this  tranquillity  was  broken  by  a  litle  boy 
making  his  entrance  upon  the  scene.  The  birch  rustled  its 
leaves  in  disapproval  as  some  of  the  frogs  having  been 
scared  jumped  into  the  water  and  wrinkled  the  surface.  This 
little  boy's  name  was  Johannes.  He  owned  a  little  boat 
which  was  moored  to  the  shore.  He  was  strictly  forbidden 
to  go  out  in  this  boat.  The  little  boy  had  a  strong  tempta- 
tion to  take  just  one  ride.  But  he  overcame  his  temptation 
and  sat  admiring  the  old  boat,  for  he  had  had  much  fun  in 
it.  Night  was  coming  and  the  little  boy  finally  saw  a  great 
many  little  frog-men  dancing  around  his  feet.  Then  some 
of  the  elder  ones  took  him  by  the  hand  and  took  him 
through  a  wonderful  land.  This  land  was  all  illuminated 
with  colored  crystal-like  lights.  This  was  the  festival  of 
the  frogs;  there  were  some  who  had  the  greenest  dresses 
on,  with  big  brown  spots  on  them,  and  others  with  brown 
dresses  with  white  underneath  the  throat.  In  one  part  of 
this  great  land  there  were  tables  set  and  great  dishes  of 
good  things  to  eat.  In  another  there  were  frogs  dancing 
and  singing  in  frog  language,  but  the  little  boy  understood 
them,  for  the  fairy  frog  had  put  him  under  a  spell.  Finally 

49 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

the  frogs  started  to  eat  and  when  they  had  finished  they 
started  to  depart.  Johannes  could  not  go,  for  he  did  not 
know  the  way.  When  the  last  one  had  departed  he  heard 
a  great  .noise  and  clamor  and  looking  around  he  saw  that 
everything  was  dark,  and  that  his  father  and  a  number  of 
men  were  standing  around.  He  had  been  asleep  and  his 
father  had  been  out  hunting  for  him  with  a  number  of  other 
men  until  he  found  him.  His  father  took  him  in  his  arms 
and  carried  him  home,  where  he  told  of  his  adventure. 


JOHANNES'  ADVENTURE 

It  was  near  the  close  of  a  sultry  day  in  summer.  The  sun, 
tired  from  its  day's  hard  work,  seemed  to  say  "Good  night" 
to  the  world  before  it  was  wrapped  up  in  the  darkness  of 
the  coming  night.  The  frogs  seemed  to  have  stopped  their 
din,  as  if  in  awe  of  the  setting  sun.  Little  Johannes  thought 
it  was  the  most  beautiful  sight  he  had  ever  seen  as  he  came 
tripping  lightly  down  the  path.  At  the  sound  of  his  feet 
the  frogs  seemed  to  awaken  from  their  trance  and  one  after 
another  their  plump !  plump !  showed  they  had  retreated  into 
the  forest  of  water-lilies. 

Tied  to  a  tree  was  a  small  boat,  which  was  the  property 
of  our  hero's  father.  Little  Johannes  thought  that  his  mother 
would  like  to  have  some  lilies.  But  really  he  only  wanted 
an  excuse  to  go  out  in  the  boat.  He  set  the  boat  adrift. 
After  half  the  distance  had  been  covered  little  Johannes  sat 
back  on  the  seat  and  fell  asleep. 

He  awoke  with  a  start,  for  he  had  heard  his  name  called. 
He  listened  for  some  moments  to  make  sure  that  he  was  not 
mistaken. 

"Johannes !"  said  a  soft  voice  behind  him.  He  turned  and 
saw  before  him  a  beautiful  girl. 

"What  do  you  want  and  who  are  you?"  asked  Johannes, 
rubbing  his  eyes  to  make  sure  he  was  awake. 

"I  am  the  Queen  of  the  Lily-pads,"  said  she,  "and  I  have 

50 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

come  to  warn  you  that  if  you  disobey  your  father  again  and 
come  out  in  your  boat  after  dark,  the  Frog  King  will  surely 
catch  you  and  he  is  a  very  bad  man." 

"All  right,  your  majesty,"  answered  little  Johannes,  "I'll 
go  right  home  and  never  go  out  again,  if  that  nasty  old 
King  will  let  me  alone  this  time." 

"Oh,  there  you  are,"  said  a  voice,  and  little  Johannes 
awoke  and  stared  around  him,  thinking  that  it  was  th£ 
Frog  King  who  had  come  to  get  him,  but  it  was  only  his 
father.  While  he  slept  the  boat  had  drifted  ashore  and  the 
little  lad's  father  had  found  him,  after  a  long,  exhausting 

search. 

* 

The  Indirect  Source. — The  second,  the  indirect 
source,  sums  up  all  the  knowledge  the  child  has,  or 
can  obtain  from  class  teaching,  textbooks,  encyclo- 
pedias, and  magazines.  Whenever  we  appeal  to  the  in- 
direct source  we  have  composition  through  correla- 
tion. In  history,  the  children  write  on  "The  Battle 
of  Bunker  Hill,"  "The  Voyages  of  Columbus," 
or  "Daniel  Webster."  In  geography  the  topic  selected 
may  be,  "The  People  of  China,"  "Notes  of  a  Trav- 
eler," "Pictures  of  Places  I  Visited,"  etc.— in  a  word, 
the  host  of  topics  to  which  mentally  lazy  teachers  have 
recourse. 

The  Danger  in  the  Indirect  Source:  Overcorr ela- 
tion.— There  is  great  danger  in  resorting  to  the  im- 
personal source  for  subject-matter.  The  composi- 
tion lesson  is  usually  regarded  by  many  teachers  as 
a  period  in  which  we  can  elaborate  and  "fill  out"  what 
was  neglected  in  geography,  history,  or  nature  study. 
We  must  never  forget  that  the  primary  object  of  a 
composition  lesson  is  expression  and  not  the  mas- 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

tery  of  information,  however  important.  The  most 
pleasing  element  in  any  pupil's  composition  is  its 
spirit  of  originality,  of  spontaneity,  and  freedom. 
Composition  cannot  show  these  characteristics  if  it 
is  a  mere  repetition  of  the  formal  lessons  in  which 
the  child  learns  to  express  the  textbook  or  the  teacher, 
but  not  himself.  Injudicious  correlation  saps  life 
and  virility  from  all  composition  exercises. 

The  Test  of  Good  Correlation  in  Composition. — 
In  all  correlation  in  composition  the  child  should  be 
encouraged  to  introduce  his  own  individuality  into 
the  narrative.  He  should  write  his  story  from  his 
own  point  of  view,  as  if  he  really  had  lived  through 
it.  The  autobiographical  element  often  makes  cor- 
relation helpful  and  suggestive.  Therefore,  the  topic, 
"Columbus,"  becomes  "The  Conspiracy  to  Throw  Me 
Overboard — Extract  from  the  Autobiography  of 
Christopher  Columbus";  a  cold  recital  of  facts  in  a 
composition  on  "Lewis  and  Clark"  takes  on  a  glow  of 
life  when  the  topic  becomes  "A  Page  from  My  Diary 
Kept  During  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition" ;  when 
the  topic  is  merely  "Bunker  Hill"  we  get  from  the 
children  a  mere  enumeration  of  events  such  as  can 
be  found  in  any  history ;  but  when  the  topic  is  changed 
to  "Watching  the  Battle  as  an  Aide  to  General  War- 
ren," the  composition  thrills  with  real  excitement. 
The  dispirited  narrative  when  the  composition  is  on 
"Arnold's  Treason"  becomes  fascinating  correspon- 
dence when  it  is  turned  into  "The  Letters  Exchanged 
between  Arnold  and  Andre."  In  this  lesson  one  child 
impersonates  Arnold  and  makes  the  offer  of  betrayal, 

52 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

and  another  is  Andre  who  writes  his  acceptance  and 
the  details  of  the  meeting. 

The  following  composition  is  a  good  example  of 
the  kind  of  correlation  that  we  must  seek  in  compo- 
sition : 

Rosewood  Cottage, 

Fredericktown,  Maryland, 

September  23,  1863. 
MY  DEAR  JOE: 

No  doubt  you  have  read  in  the  newspapers  the  heroic  deed 
performed  in  this  town.  It  no  doubt  has  been  the  chief 
subject  of  conversation  throughout  the  country.  Of  course 
some  versions  are  greatly  exaggerated,  but  the  honor  that 
has  been  given  to  that  noble  old  woman  she  fully  deserves. 
As  I  was  an  interested  spectator  and  saw  the  occurrence 
from  beginning  to  end,  I  shall  briefly  relate  to  you  every 
detail  as  it  truly  happened. 

I  had  been  stopping  for  a  few  weeks  at  the  home  of  my 
aunt  in  Fredericktown,  a  pleasant  little  village  in  the  state 
of  Maryland.  One  cool  September  morn  I  was  leaving  the 
house  for  one  of  my  daily  walks  when  I  heard  the  steady 
tramp  of  marching  feet.  Turning,  I  beheld  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  see,  soldiers  in  the  gray  uniform  of  the  Confederate 
Army,  General  "Stonewall"  Jackson  at  their  head.  We  were 
expecting  them,  and  earlier  in  the  day  every  Union  flag  had 
been  withdrawn,  notwithstanding  the  protests  of  the  North- 
ern citizens.  As  the  Southern  army  approached  the  house 
of  Barbara  Frietchie  I  saw  her  withdraw  her  head  from  the 
window,  immediately  to  reappear  with  a  large  American  flag, 
whose  staff  she  placed  in  the  window-sill.  The  flag  slowly 
unfurled  itself  and  proudly  began  to  wave  in  the  brisk  morn- 
ing breeze.  As  General  Jackson  went  marching  by,  glancing 
from  right  to  left,  his  quick  eye  soon  noted  the  waving  flag. 
"Halt !"  he  cried,  and  his  troops  stood  fast.  "Fire !"  Out 
blazed  the  rifles.  They  shivered  the  sash  and  window-pane 

53 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

and  rent  the  flag.  As  it  fell  from  the  shattered  staff  Bar- 
bara Frietchie  snatched  it,  and,  leaning  far  out  of  the  win- 
dow, waved  it  excitedly  to  and  fro,  while  she  exclaimed, 
"Strike,  if  you  must,  this  old  gray  head,  but  spare  your 
country's  flag  instead."  The  now  excited  throng  raised  a 
frenzied  and  mighty  shout  as  it  saw  this  aged  and  defense- 
less woman,  the  oldest  inhabitant  of  the  town,  alone  defend- 
ing her  country's  flag.  A  shade  of  sadness  and  shame  stole 
o'er  the  General's  face,  and  he  bowed  his  head  upon  his 
breast.  Suddenly  he  lifted  his  head  and,  "Who  touches  a 
hair  of  yon  gray  head,  dies  like  a  dog.  March  on !"  he  said. 
All  day  long  sounded  the  feet  of  the  marching  army.  And 
all  day  long  that  free  flag  waved  grandly  o'er  the  heads  of 
the  Southern  host. 

Hoping  this  somewhat  lengthy  narrative  will  interest  you, 
I  remain  Your  true  friend, 

HARRY  S. 

In  contrast  to  the  above,  let  us  see  the  following 
example  of  correlation,  suggested  as  a  model  by  the 
principal  of  one  of  our  city  schools: 

London,  England, 

June  2,  1905. 
DEAR  WILLIAM  : 

I  reached  London  at  ten  o'clock  Monday  morning  and  the 
first  thing  I  went  to  see  was  Westminster  Abbey,  a  very 
large  church  which  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

It  was  built  by  King  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1065  and  the 
first  great  service  was  held  in  the  Abbey  Christmas  Day  of 
that  year.  A  few  weeks  later  King  Edward  took  sick  from 
old  age  and  died  and  was  buried  there. 

The  Abbey  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  and  in 
the  south  transcript  is  the  Poets'  Corner,  where  there  is  a 
bust  of  Longfellow,  a  tablet  to  Shakespeare  and  a  memo- 
randum window  to  Lowell.  King  Henry  added  another 

54 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE   GRAMMAR    GRADES 

chapel,  in  which  there  is  the  tomb  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
the  choir  is  as  large  as  a  good-sized  church. 

Your  friend, 


This  composition  is  a  stupid  reproduction  from  the 
"Encyclopedia  of  Persons  and  Places";  the  compo- 
sition is  dead  and  was  written  because  it  was  an  as- 
signed task..  The  errors  of  speech,  of  grouping,  and 
of  facts  which  occur  would  not  have  been  made  if  the 
child  understood  and  felt  what  he  was  writing.  All 
this  is  justified  in  the  name  of  correlation  for  the 
principal's  conference  notes  add :  "The  children  are 
benefited  not  merely  in  the  line  of  letter  writing, 
but  their  language  is  improved  and  they  gain  valu- 
able, curious,  and  interesting  bits  of  information  con- 
cerning different  countries  of  the  world,  old  and 
new." 

What  Is  a  Good  Subject  for  Composition? — We 
can  best  sum  up  our  inquiry  concerning  the  choice 
of  a  subject  for  composition  by  noting  the  salient  char- 
acteristic of  a  good  "composition  subject."  The  dif- 
ference between  a  "good"  subject  and  a  "bad"  one 
is  the  difference  between  "having  something  to  say" 
and  "having  to  say  something."  When  the  child  is 
told  to  write  on  Westminster  Abbey,  he  has  to  say 
something.  All  inspiration,  all  ideas  that  may  be  lurk- 
ing in  the  mind  are  at  once  dispelled.  When  the 
child  is  writing  because  he  has  something  to  say, 
success  is  guaranteed  because  the  subject  of  the  en- 
tire composition  is  really  "I."  In  the  teaching  of  ele- 
mentary composition  a  good  subject  allows  the  per- 

55 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

sonal  pronoun  of  the  first  person  to  be  the  real  if  not 
the  nominal  subject. 

In  the  light  of  this  standard,  how  stupid  and  inane 
are  the  following  models,  offered  by  principals  to 
teachers  to  be  imposed  on  the  children.  They  have 
all  been  gathered  in  the  last  three  years  from  con- 
ference notes  and  direct  "Orders  to  Teachers." 

THE   EAST   RIVER    BRIDGES 

There  are  four  great  bridges  connecting  the  boroughs  of 
Manhattan  and  Brooklyn.  Each  of  them  is  more  than  a 
mile  in  length.  You  can  walk  across  them,  or  you  can  go 
over  them  in  a  car  or  a  carriage. 

From  these  bridges  you  can  see  steamers  with  their  tall 
pipes  and  masts  passing  up  and  down  the  East  River.  Ferry- 
boats, too,  are  seen  going  back  and  forth  between  the  two 
boroughs. 

The  ferryboats  used  to  be  the  only  means  of  crossing 
from  Brooklyn  to  New  York.  Now  the  bridges  make  it 
easier  for  the  people  to  go  from  one  borough  to  the  other. 

COAL 

Hundreds  and  hundreds  of  years  ago  there  were  great 
forests.  In  these  forests  there  were  no  insects ;  nothing  was 
there  but  large  trees.  These  trees  sank  into  the  earth  and 
have  become  coal. 

Men  go  down  into  the  earth  in  small  elevators  to  get  the 
coal.  These  men  are  called  miners.  They  have  little  lamps 
on  their  hats.  It  is  very  dark  and  dangerous  down  in  the 
rm'nes. 

Many  years  ago  children  worked  in  the  mines. 

There  are  a  great  many  halls  in  the  mines.  Coal  is  very 
opaque  and  it  is  shiny  and  very  brittle. 

56 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

THE  EARTHWORM 

The  earthworm's  body  is  made  up  of  many  segments.  He 
has  no  bones.  Fowls  and  birds  eat  him. 

He  needs  no  eyes  because  he  lives  in  the  dark  earth.  He 
destroys  the  roots  of  plants  by  eating  them. 

When  he  dies  his  body  mixes  with  the  soil  and  makes  it 
richer. 

KINDNESS 

I  should  always  treat  others  kindly.  I  should  be  especially 
kind  to  all  the  members  of  my  own  family. 

I  should  be  kind  to  all  with  whom  I  have  anything  to  do, 
even  if  they  are  not  such  children  as  I  would  choose  for 
companions. 

If  I  have  pets,  I  should  be  very  kind  to  them. 

How  far  superior  are  the  following,  personal  ex- 
pressions of  the  children! 

THE  SCIENCES 

Though  I  have  read  few  books  on  science,  I  have  noticed 
that,  with  but  one  exception,  they  merely  gave  the  facts. 
For  this  reason  I  had  almost  formed  an  opinion  that  science 
was  interesting,  but  that  books  on  that  subject  were  dry. 

But  when  I  came  in  contact  with  a  certain  book  that  opin- 
ion vanished  into  thin  air.  The  cause  of  this  sudden  revolu- 
tion of  ideas  was  a  book  with  the  dull  title — "The  Sciences." 
Edward  S.  Holden  is  the  author  of  it.  Perhaps  I  liked  the 
book  because  the  topics  were  explained  in  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  a  conversation.  The  illustrations,  too,  were  the 
best  I  have  ever  seen.  The  experiment  was  always  ex- 
plained underneath  the  diagram. 

I  do  not  know  why  I  grasp  the  facts  better  in  reading 

57 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

conversation  than  facts.  Maybe  because  the  one,  being 
more  interesting,  engages  my  attention  more.  Before  read- 
ing the  book  I  knew  nothing  of  electricity.  Now  I  know  a 
little  at  least.  The  book  did  not  take  up  much  about  elec- 
tricity or  I  would  have  learned  more.  My  only  unfavorable 
criticism  is  that  the  children  knew  too  much  and  spoke  too 
well  for  their  age.  For  instance,  a  girl  of  nine  is  not  likely 
to  know  much  about  diving  bells,  planets,  etc.  But  on  the 
whole  the  book  is  excellent. 

"CHERRY  RIPE" 

"Cherry  Ripe"  is  a  little  girl  sitting  on  a  huge  boulder, 
with  her  little  toes  turned  in  and  her  little  hands  clasped. 
Beside  her  on  the  boulder,  on  a  large  leaf,  are  a  number  of 
ripe  cherries.  "Cherry  Ripe"  must  be  a  very  old  picture,  for 
her  dress,  shoes,  gloves  and  hat  are  of  the  fashion  of  years 
gone  by. 

Around  her  neck  is  a  scarf  which  looks  like  a  bertha. 
Around  her  waist  is  the  wide  girdle.  The  long,  full  skirt 
comes  to  her  ankles,  out  of  which  her  little  feet  just  peep. 
Her  gloves  come  halfway  up  her  arm. 

Above  her  the  May  blossom  and  wistaria  are  twining  and 
form  an  arch.  Below  her  the  lilies  and  tall  grass  come  up 
and  form  a  frame,  but  I  think  that  the  artist  of  this  picture 
intended  that  she  should  be  the  sweetest  and  prettiest  flower 
of  them  all. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a  subject,  per  se,  is 
neither  good  nor  bad.  The  point  of  view  and  the 
interpretation  of  it  always  determine  its  value  in  ele- 
mentary classes.  The  topic,  "The  Snowfall,"  gives 
a  stupid  and  lifeless  composition  if  the  children  are 
required  to  treat  it  in  the  following  topics:  In  what 
season  does  it  come?  What  temperature  is  neces- 

58 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

sary?  Its  relation  to  rain?  What  forms  may  the 
flakes  take?  What  are  the  uses  of  snow  in  preserving 
plant  life?  etc.  What  is  here  offered  the  child  is  an 
adult's  composition  on  snow,  written  from  a  scientific 
point  of  view  with  a  serious  aim.  This  is  what  snow 
may  be  to  the  teacher  but  it  is  not  what  snow  is  to 
the  child.  To  him,  it  has  no  scientific  cause,  it  jus- 
tifies itself  merely  by  the  fact  that  it  adds  to  his  joy. 
How  truly  a  boy's  composition  on  snow  is  the  follow- 


ing! 


A  WINTER  DAY 


"I'll  bet  you  that  we  will  have  some  snow  this  week,"  my 
friend  had  declared  the  day  before  the  snowfall,  and  all  of 
us  agreed  with  him,  for  the  wind  was  cold  and  biting  and 
the  clouds  low  and  dark. 

The  next  morning  when  I  awoke  I  instantly  saw  that  my 
friend  had  been  right.  The  windows  were  frosted  and  the 
streets  spotless  white,  as  traffic  had  not  yet  begun.  The  ad- 
joining roofs  looked  as  if  they  had  been  covered  with  a  huge 
sheet,  while  in  the  park  every  twig  and  branch  was  clothed 
in  its  winter  garments.  The  street  was  as  quiet  as  a  grave- 
yard, except  for  an  occasional  rattle  of  a  truck  as  it  rolled 
over  the  frozen  pavement. 

After  eating  breakfast  and  taking  as  few  books  as  pos- 
sible, I  started  off  for  school  and  met  a  number  of  my 
friends.  "Hello,  Willie,"  I  cried  to  one  of  them,  "how  do 
you  like  the" — when,  biff!  came  a  snowball,  which  found 
lodgment  in  my  ear.  "Say,  Is,  how  do  you  like  the" — came 
derisively  from  Willie,  while  several  boys  laughed  heartily 
at  my  misfortune.  Then  began  a  battle,  which  soon  ended, 
as  time  was  flying  and  we  did  not  care  to  be  late. 

After  school  we  met  in  our  clubroom,  and  together  we 
went  to  some  building  lots,  where  the  snow  was  undisturbed, 
and  began  building  a  fort,  for  which  we  were  to  have  a 

59 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

battle.  'tVhen  the  fort  was  completed  we  chose  sides,  and 
I  was  put  on  the  force  which  was  to  capture  the  fort.  As 
I  am  not  an  accurate  thrower,  I  was  given  the  position  of 
supplying  snowballs.  We  soon  overpowered  the  enemy  and 
with  a  loud  cheer  took  possession.  We  kept  on  playing  until 
dark  and  then  went  home,  hoping  that  there  would  be  a  bliz- 
zard during  the  night,  which  would  insure  some  fun  on  the 
morrow. 

The  practical  teacher  may  admit  the  possibilities  of 
these  results  with  classes  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
school  course,  but  may  insist  that  in  the  lower  grades 
the  expressions  must  be  more  or  less  formal  and 
the  content  must  possess  a  simplicity  that  seems  insipid 
to  the  adult  mind.  It  is  evidently  such  lack  of  confi- 
dence in  the  imaginative  products  of  children  that 
prompted  a  principal  of  an  elementary  school  to  sug- 
gest the  following  models  for  fourth-year  classes : 

MY  DOLL 

My  doll  is  a  toy.  It  looks  like  a  baby  girl.  Its  head  is 
made  of  china;  its  arms  and  legs  are  of  plaster.  The  body 
of  the  doll  is  sawdust  and  rags.  It  has  glass  eyes  that  turn 
down  when  the  doll  is  put  to  sleep. 


THE   TROLLEY   CAR 

The  trolley  car  is  a  combined  wagon  and  big  machine.  It 
moves  by  electric  power.  The  motorman  makes  it  go  by 
turning  a  handle.  The  trolley  car  can  draw  heavy  loads. 
It  travels  on  wheels ;  these  wheels  turn  on  tracks.  The  ma- 
chinery is  under  the  car. 

60 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR   GRADES 

Principals  and  teachers  possessed  of  sympathetic  in- 
sight see  at  once  that  to  the  child  the  doll  is  more  than 
a  composite  of  china,  clay,  glass  and  sawdust.  It  is  a 
living  object  upon  which  are  spent  all  the  emotions  of 
latent  motherhood.  •  In  the  second  model  the  trolley 
car  is  not  an  object  of  wonder  and  awe,  a  monster 
of  strength  and  speed.  These  models  do  not  lift  the 
child  above  the  level  of  the  commonplace  or  the  cold 
realities  of  life.  Contrast  them  with  the  following 
compositions  written  by  second-  and  third-year  chil- 
dren whose  teacher's  sympathy  enabled  her  to  stir  the 
magic  force  of  their  imagination,  so  that  the  results 
are  rich  in  imagery  and  poetic  charm. 

WHERE  DOES  THE  WIND  BEGIN? 

The  wind  begins  in  the  sky.  The  wind  talks.  What  does 
the  wind  say?  The  wind  says,  "OOOOO." 

ANGELINA  L. 

The  wind  begins  in  the  clouds.  The  wind  goes  to  sleep  in 
the  forest.  JOHN  H. 

I  know  where  you  live  wind  you  live  in  the  tree  you  are 
laughing  wind.  ALBERT  V. 

Where  does  the  wind  begin?  A  big  man  blows  it  out  of 
his  moth.  PHILIP  V. 

THE  ROBIN'S  SONG 

I  hear  the  robin  singing  in  the  trees.  He  sings  "The  but- 
terfly s  are  angel  flowers."  JOHN  R. 

Wake  up !  Wake  up  !  Wake  up !  It  is  robin  Readbrest. 
Sunny  warm  weather  is  coming.  ANGELO  S. 

61 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

The  robin  sings  the  spring  is  coming.  The  spring  is  wak- 
ing the  green  grass.  Little  green  buds  are  coming  out  of 
the  trees.  JOSEPH  G. 

The  robin  sings  to  the  Daffadils,  "open  your  yellow  eyes." 
The  Robin's  sits  on  my  window  and  tells  me  a  secret  of 
spring-time.  MARY  R. 

I  see  the  robin  on  the  bushes.  The  robin  is  singing  me  a 
lovely  song.  The  robin  is  telling  me  a  secret.  The  flowers 
are  bursting  out  of  their  buds  because  it  is  spring. 

CLARA  B. 

The  robin  sings  Twee !  Twee !  Twee !  The  robin  says 
"Appleblosoms  come  out  of  your  buds."  He  tells  me  to  be 
happy  for  spring  is  here.  CORNELIUS  O. 

THE  DARK 

The  dark  keeps  me  warm.  I  see  a  lady  dancing  on  the 
spark  of  the  moon.  The  sun  eats  all  the  little  people  up. 

MARY  R. 

The  dark  is  all  around.  I  see  emporers  and  kings  march- 
ing by.'  The  sun  swallows  them  up.  ALBERT  P. 

In  the  night  it  is  dark.  At  night  I  see  strange  people  and 
I  hear  strange  music.  In  the  morning  the  dark  goes  away. 
In  the  morning  the  strange  people  fade  away.  CLARA  B. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  VIII. 


CHAPTER   V 

COMPOSITION  IN  THE   GRAMMAR  GRADES 
(Continued) 

HOW    SECURE    ORGANIZATION    AND    SEQUENCE:     THE 
OUTLINE 

The  Tendency  to  Ramble.— Of  the  three  basic  prob- 
lems that  confront  the  grammar  class  teacher  in  com- 
position, lack  of  subject-matter,  lack  of  sequence  and 
expressional  limitations,  we  have  considered  only  the 
first.  Our  immediate  task  is,  therefore,  a  considera- 
tion of  the  problem  of  organization  of  ideas  for  ra- 
tional expression.  Children's  compositions  often  lack 
this  primary  requisite,  proper  sequence  of  ideas. 
The  child's  tendency  to  ramble  is  responsible  for 
his  characteristic  composition  which  lacks  clearness 
and  force.  But  we  need  not  ascribe  this  weak- 
ness solely  to  children;  adults,  »  too,  are  often 
guilty  of  flagrant  violations  of  the  simple  principle 
of  logical  sequence.  Examine  the  trend  of  conver- 
sation in  any  ordinary  gathering;  every  important 
topic  is  touched  on  and  passed  over  in  the  "drift"  of 
discussion  because  every  new  interest  challenges  at- 
tention. Class  discussions  of  mature  students  are 
often  examples  of  verbal  spirals.  Listen  to  the  aver- 
age adult  as  he  tells  of  some  incident  or  expounds 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

some  principle,  in  which  there  is  no  inherent  sequence 
of  events — what  a  heterogeneous  composite  of  facts! 

Illogical  sequence  of  ideas  and  lack  of  coherence 
of  thought  are  general  failings.  Teachers  must  not, 
therefore,  be  surprised  to  find  these  defects  in  chil- 
dren's work.  Just  as  adults  are  unconscious  of  their 
limitations  in  this  respect,  so,  too,  are  our  immature 
pupils.  The  first  problem  that  presents  itself,  there- 
fore, is  not  to  teach  the  principle  of  organization  but 
to  bring  home  the  consciousness  of  its  need  and  its 
importance.  This  can  best  be  done  by  a  method  of 
reductio  ad  absurdum.  After  the  child  realizes  his 
limitations,  present  the  positive  aspects  of  the  lesson, 
teach  him  how  to  secure  organization  through  the 
elaboration  of  the  outline. 

The  Principle  of  Organization  Taught  by  the  Outline. 
— Let  us  suggest  a  lesson  designed  to  bring  home 
to  the  child  the  inherent  tendency  to  ramble  and  to 
teach  him  a  method  of  securing  rational  and  syste- 
matic ordering  of  ideas.  A  descriptive  composition 
on  a  well-selected  topic  can  readily  achieve  this  double 
end.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  the  subject,  "The 
Circus,"  was  assigned  to  a  fifth-year  class.  The  chil- 
dren were  made  to  understand  that  they  must  write 
such  a  description  of  the  circus  as  would  give  one 
who  has  never  seen  it  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  will  see, 
and  stir  in  him  a  desire  to  see  the  wonderful  feats 
of  skill  and  daring.  Every  child  was  then  told  to  be 
ready  to  make  a  contribution  of  fact,  each  to  tell  what 
he  would  include  in  his  own  composition.  The  teacher 
took  these  items  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  sug- 

64 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

gested  by  children  who  were  called  upon  promiscu- 
ously. Such  a  request  for  material  brought  the  fol- 
lowing data  from  the  class :  the  daredevil  acts,  the 
animals,  the  great  tent,  the  three  rings,  the  large 
signs,  the  group  of  small  tents,  the  crowds,  highly 
colored  pictures,  the  peddlers  selling  refreshments, 
the  horse  riders,  the  acrobats,  the  "barkers"  at  the 
"side-shows,"  the  band,  the  apparatus,  the  funny 
sights,  the  freaks,  the  arrangement  of  seats,  etc. 

A  few  judicious  questions  and  suggestions  soon  led 
the  children  to  realize  the  utter  absurdity  of  such  an 
arrangement  and  to  feel  the  need  of  systematic  pres- 
entation of  details.  That  done,  the  teacher  elicited 
from  the  children  a  suitable  sequence.  "What  would 
one  see  on  first  approaching  the  circus  ground?"  The 
conclusion  reached  by  the  class  was :  "The  first  para- 
graph ought  to  treat  of  the  outside  of  the  circus." 
The  question,  "What  would  one  see  on  entering  the 
circus  inclosure  after  passing  through  the  admission 
gate?"  suggested  to  the  class  the  theme  for  the  second 
paragraph,  In  the  Circus  Grounds.  The  teacher  then 
asked,  "What  would  attract  one's  attention  in  the 
main  tent?"  and  brought  the  children  to  a  realization 
that  the  concluding  paragraph  must  tell  of  the  Great 
Circus  Feats.  The  paragraphs  with  their  respective 
headings  were  then  written  in  separate  columns  on 
the  blackboard  and  the  first  step  in  the  development 
of  the  outline  was  completed. 

The  children  then  folded  their  papers  into  three 
divisions,  each  part  to  serve  for  the  outline  of  a  single 
paragraph.  They  were  then  led  to  take  up  each  item 

65 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

in  their  original  promiscuous  list  of  data  and  decide 
for  themselves  in  what  paragraph  it  belonged.  Thus 
the  first  contribution,  "daredevil  acts,"  is  evidently 
part  of  the  paragraph  on  The  Great  Circus  Feats; 
the  second,  "the  animals,"  part  of  the  paragraph  on 
Within  the  Circus  Grounds,  etc.,  until  every  fact 
worth  including  in  the  composition  was  properly 
placed.  The  result  presented  an  appearance  similar 
to  the  following: 


Par.     I.       Outside 
the  Circus 

1.  stretch   of   can- 

vas 

4.  the  great  tent 

2.  large  signs 

5.  the  crowds 

3.  highly     colored 

pictures 


Par.  II.  Within  the 
Circus  Grounds 

7.  the  animals 

1.  group   of   small 

tents 

4.  the  peddlers  sell- 

ing     refresh- 
ments 

2.  "barkers"         at 

"side-shows" 

3.  the  band 

5.  the  funny  sights 

6.  the  freaks 


Par.  III.    The  Cir- 
cus Feats 

2.  the  three  rings 
i.  the  audience  in 

seats 

6.  horse  riders 
5.  acrobats 

7.  the  races 

4.  the  apparatus 

3.  the  clown 

8.  the      daredevil 

acts 


This  done,  the  children  were  asked  to  examine  the 
items  in  each  paragraph  and  determine  the  logical  po- 
sition of  each.  With  the  aid  of  prefixed  numbers, 
they  worked  out  the  sequence  of  ideas  in  each  para- 
graph as  is  shown  in  the  outline  above. 

Values  of  the  Outline. — The  values  of  such  a  lesson 
in  sequence  and  organization  are  many  and  significant. 
It  is  obviously  an  effective  means  of  teaching  the 

66 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

child  the  need  of  rational  sequence  of  thought,  and 
the  mode  of  grouping  ideas  for  clear  and  forceful  ex- 
pression. The  outline,  properly  used  and  elaborated, 
also  trains  the  child  in  systematic  thought,  in  clear 
and  continued  development  of  a  line  of  thinking.  As 
a  formal  classroom  exercise  for  challenging  the 
child's  powers  of  judgment  and  concentration,  it 
is  excellent.  Another  inestimable  value  of  the  out- 
line is  that  it  is  the  most  concrete  and  the  most 
efBcacious  method  at  the  teacher's  command  of 
teaching  the  paragraph,  its  meaning,  its  develop- 
ment and  its  unity.  This  is  true  because  the  nature 
of  a  paragraph  can  best  be  taught  through  a  form 
of  contrast.  There  must  be  a  number  of  paragraphs 
developing  under  the  pupils'  hands,  otherwise  they 
carry  away  notions  that  are  vague  and  inaccurate. 
Then,  too,  the  child  learns  best  through  some  form 
of  motorization.  The  method  suggested  for  teaching 
the  outline  enables  the  child  to  learn  the  organiza- 
tion of  paragraphs  by  actually  evolving  a  number  of 
them  simultaneously  and  noting  the  various  basic 
ideas  that  determine  the  unity  of  each. 

The  Drill  to  Insure  Mastery  of  the  Outline. — Since 
the  object  in  all  language  teaching  is  to  habituate  the 
correct  form  it  is  evident  that  vigorous  and  persistent 
drill  must  follow  this  lesson.  This  drill  must  be 
varied  as  well  as  thorough  so  that  interest  in  the  les- 
son will  not  be  endangered.  To  this  end  we  may 
suggest  a  number  of  exercises : 

i.  Similar  topics  are  suggested  to  the  class  and 
the  method  is  applied  to  each  of  these  by  the  steps 

67 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

that  were  outlined  in  the  model  lesson.  Such  topics 
as,  "Our  Church,"  "The  Polo  Grounds,"  "Our 
School,"  "A  Sporting  Goods  Window,"  "The  East 
River  Bridge,"  "The  Peddler  Selling  Mechanical 
Toys,"  etc.,  allow  for  a  simple  application  of  the 
method  learned  to  the  new  topic. 

2.  Incidents,  descriptions,  expositions  and  the  like, 
which  abound  in  the  children's  textbooks,  are  taken 
up  one  by  one  and  analyzed  into  component  ideas  in 
order  to  lay  bare  the  outline  which  the  author  had  in 
mind  when  he  wrote  the  particular  selection  under 
study.    The  children  are  taught  to  point  out  the  topic 
of  each  paragraph  and  then  to  test  its  paragraph  unity. 

3.  The  next  form  of  drill  should  take  up  varied  top- 
ics of  narrative,  argumentative,  expository  and  descrip- 
tive nature,  which  should  be  used  in  oral  exercises.     A 
few  minutes  after  a  new  topic  is  announced  the  children 
must  be  ready  to  tell  the  number  of  paragraphs  they 
would  use  in  developing  it  and  the  theme  of  each  para- 
graph.    When  a  tentative  set  of  paragraphs  has  been 
accepted  the  children  must  quickly  evolve  an  appro- 
priate content  for  each  and  offer  it  to  the  class  orally, 
when  called  up.     After  the  last  paragraph  is  given, 
a  new  topic  is  announced  and  the  same  rapid  oral 
drill  takes  place. 

The  subject  given  to  a  6A  grade  in  such  a  drill 
was,  "The  Breakdown  of  the  Trolley  Car."  By  skill- 
ful leading  and  emphasis  of  correct  answers  the 
teacher  elicited  from  the  class  the  following  develop- 
ment: 

Par.  i.  The  Trolley  Car  Collides  with  a  Wagon. 

68 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

Par.  2.  Impatience  of  the  Passengers. 

Par.  3.  Examination  of  the  Extent  of  the  Accident 
and  Attempt  at  Repairs. 

Par.  4.  Arrival  of  the  Emergency  Wagon  and  the 
Repair  Crew. 

These  four  paragraph  headings  were  put  on  the 
board  and  attention  was  then  directed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  each  one.  In  attacking  the  first  one  for  elabo- 
ration, the  children  were  able  to  work  out  a  good 
opening  sentence.  After  a  few  colorless  attempts 
in  which  the  teacher  indicated  the  cause  of  the  weak- 
ness, a  sentence  offered  was,  "While  I  sat  in  a  Third 
Avenue  trolley,  impatient  at  the  slowness,  the  car 
came  to  a  sudden  standstill."  The  teacher's  com- 
mendation of  the  opening  sentence  soon  provoked 
from  another  child,  "  What  terrible  service !  What 
a  snail  car  this  is/  I  said  to  myself,  when  all  of  a 
sudden  there  was  a  crash  and  the  car  stopped  with 
a  terrible  jerk" ;  and  from  a  third,  "No  trolley  car 
travels  so  fast  as  when  the  motorman  loses  control 
of  it."  One  development  of  this  first  paragraph,  as 
given  orally,  was,  "We  were  all  shaken  up  a  bit  but 
soon  recovered  from  the  fright  and  the  noise  of 
crashing  window-panes.  There  was  great  excitement 
for  a  minute  as  the  people  rushed  to  the  doors.  When 
they  realized  that  the  danger  was  over  they  became 
calm  and  went  to  their  seats  again.  It  seemed  that 
the  wagon  that  collided  with  our  car  got  the  worse 
of  it." 

Paragraph  number  2,  on  the  "impatience  of  the  pas- 
sengers," brought  sentences  which  told  of  the  strain- 

69 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

ing  of  necks,  of  complaints,  of  people  who  left  in  dis- 
gust, of  women  who  wanted  their  fares  back,  and  of 
men  who  lost  themselves  in  newspapers.  The  third 
paragraph  dealt  with  the  examination  of  the  acci- 
dent by  the  motorman  and  the  conductor,  their  quar- 
rel with  the  wagon  driver  who  caused  the  accident, 
their  conference,  their  futile  attempt  at  repair,  and 
then  their  telephoning  for  help.  The  concluding  para- 
graph, developed  orally  in  the  same  way,  told  of  the 
arrival  of  the  emergency  wagon,  the  business-like 
procedure  with  which  these  expert  workmen  set  to 
work,  the  policeman  taking  notes,  the  final  repair  and 
the  relief  of  having  started  again. 

All  this  work  was  oral;  only  hints  and  outlines  of 
paragraphs  were  jotted  down  either  on  the  board  or 
on  the  children's  cards.  Every  child's  answers  were 
examined  and  the  class  as  a  whole  passed  upon  them, 
deciding  whether  particular  facts  were  appropriate 
in  the  paragraph  under  consideration,  whether  the 
sequence  of  paragraphs  was  correct,  etc.  In  the  same 
way  the  following  topics  might  be  treated :  "A  Sport- 
ing Goods  Window,"  "A  Mounted  Policeman,"  "Joe, 
the  Pretzel  Man,"  "A  Beggar,"  ''Report  of  a  Game," 
"An  Athletic  Meet,"  etc.  Three  or  four  of  these  topics 
could  be  taken  up  orally  in  one  period. 

Cautions  in  Developing  Outlines.— There  are  common 
but  erroneous  practices  in  developing  outlines  that  we 
must  constantly  guard  against  if  we  are  to  secure 
maximum  results  in  this  type  of  exercise.  We  must 
now  turn  to  these  cautions  in  this  form  of  language 
work. 

70 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

1.  The   Outline   Must   Be   the   Child's   Outline.— 
Every  part  of  the  lesson  must  be  the  result  of  the 
children's  self-activity;  they  must  suggest  every  fact 
in  the  outline;  they  must  evolve  the  number  of  para- 
graphs; they  must  judge  each  item  and  decide  upon 
its  place  in  the  general  organization.     Unless  every 
act  of  judgment  is  performed  by  the  pupils,  the  maxi- 
mum results  of  such  a  lesson  cannot  be  realized. 

2.  Too    Many    Details   in    the    Outline   Must   Be 
Avoided. — It  is  important  that  the  outline  should  not 
be  laden  with  too  many  minute  details.    There  should 
be  a  general  organization,  a  broad  suggestion  of  the 
line  of  development  and  of  the  proper  sequence.     An 
outline  that   gives   an   enumeration  of   petty  details 
crushes  individuality,  kills  spontaneity  and  robs  the 
final  composition  of  its  best  expressional  elements. 

3.  Avoid   a    Stereotyped   Class    Outline. — A    final 
word  of  warning  counsels  that  we  avoid  such  out- 
lines as  will  give  a  set  of  compositions  bearing  re- 
markable similarity  to  one  another  in  every  detail — 
exercises  that  seem  as  if  they  were  printed  from  the 
same  type  and  cast  in  the  same  mold.     How  can  we 
guard  against  this  slavish  imitation?     How  can  we 
introduce  individuality  of  expression  and  variety  of 
form? 

How  to  Secure  Variety  in  the  Outlines. — i.  Outlines 
Should  Not  Be  Copied  Verbatim. — Despite  the  fact 
that  the  class  as  a  whole  or  a  particular  division 
may  be  writing  on  the  same  subject  and  from  the 
same  general  outline,  variety  of  expression  and  in- 
dividuality in  the  final  product  need  not  be  stifled. 

7i 


THE  TEACHING  OF  ENGLISH 

After  the  outline  is  elaborated  and  the  final  form  is 
shown  on  the  blackboard-,  it  should  be  erased  and  the 
children  should  be  required  to  construct  their  own, 
each  child  thus  producing  an  outline  reflecting  his 
own  point  of  view  and  his  own  individuality.  No 
matter  how  retentive  the  children  may  be,  a  delight- 
ful variety  can  be  secured. 

2.  Encourage  Variety  of  Grouping. — After  the 
children  have  learned  the  modus  opcrandi  in  the  con- 
struction of  an  outline,  the  teacher  must  not  rest  con- 
tent with  one  grouping  of  facts.  Show  the  children 
that  the  number  of  paragraphs  is  not  fixed,  provided 
the  items  in  each  are  shifted  and  rearranged  under 
their  logical  heading.  Variety  will  invariably  result. 
Thus  in  a  composition  on  "Our  School,"  let  it  be  sup- 
posed the  visitor  arrives  in  a  carriage  and  enters  at 
once,  then  what  is  the  sequence  of  paragraphs?  Evi- 
dently, paragraph  i,  Interior  Structure;  paragraph  2, 
Decorations;  paragraph  3,  Activities;  paragraph  4, 
Exterior.  Or,  the  visitor  on  entering  is  attracted  by 
the  work  that  is  being  done;  hence  the  paragraphing 
is,  paragraph  i,  Activities;  paragraph  2,  Structure 
That  Makes  This  Possible;  paragraph  3,  Teaching 
Apparatus;  paragraph  4,  Decorations;  paragraph  5, 
Exterior  Structure,  etc.  Each  child  may  therefore 
select  that  grouping  which  appeals  to  him  most. 

In  the  description  of  the  circus  the  teacher  and 
the  children  should  evolve  other  forms  of  paragraph 
development  than  the  one  suggested  in  the  lesson,  viz., 
paragraph  i,  The  Parade  Before  the  Opening  of  the 
Circus;  paragraph  2,  The  Circus  Grounds;  paragraph 

72 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

3,  The  Circus  Performance;  or,  paragraph  i,  The 
Circus  Grounds;  paragraph  2,  The  Performance  in 
the  Main  Tent;  paragraph  3,  The  Side-shows;  or, 
paragraph  i,  The  Preparation  Before  the  Circus 
Comes  to  Town ;  paragraph  2,  How  the  Circus  Is  Put 
Up;  paragraph  3,  The  Rehearsals;  paragraph  4,  The 
Performance.  A  child  who  experiences  difficulty  with 
one  arrangement  of  paragraphs  may  find  another  sug- 
gestive and  interesting.  He  must  therefore  be  given 
free  choice  and  be  allowed  to  follow  a  paragraph 
grouping  that  is  entirely  original,  should  his  ingenuity 
suggest  one. 

3.  Allozv  Personal  Choice  of  Details. — Once   the 
paragraph  themes  have  been  suggested,  teachers  must 
allow  children  perfect  freedom  in  the  choice  of  de- 
tails.    Thus  in  the  paragraph  on  The  Circus  Feats 
in  the  composition  on  "The   Circus/'  children  may. 
omit  any  data  offered  in  the  outline  and  incorporate 
any  other  feats  of  skill  and  daring  that  have  greater 
attraction  for  them.     What  children  are  to  say  about 
the  various  suggestions  in  the  outline  about  the  "side- 
shows,"  "the  barkers,"  "the  acrobats,"  "the  clown," 
etc.,  should  never  be  indicated.     Whatever  the  word 
suggests  to  their  minds  they  should  write,   unham- 
pered by  injudicious  direction  and  dictation,  and  thus 
again  offset  the  undesirable  sameness  of  class  pro- 
ductions. 

4.  Encourage  Variety  of  "Attacking  and  Closing" 
the  Subject. — Another  means  of  securing  variety  of 
form   and   showing   personality   in   expression   is   to 
elicit  a  variety  of  beginnings  and  endings.     The  com- 

73 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

positions  on  "Our  School"  showed  the  following  in 
a  5B  class : 

1.  "I  am  very  proud  of  my  school  for  it  is  so  at- 
tractive." 

2.  "Every  visitor  who  comes  to  this  section  of  the 
city  is  attracted  by  our  school/' 

3.  "I  praised  my  school  so  much  that  my  uncle 
finally  made  up  his  mind  to  visit  it.     I  met  him  at 
the  teachers'  entrance." 

4.  "One  of  the  very  beautiful  buildings  in  this  city 


is  .  . 


5.  "My  country  cousin  was  never  so  much  sur- 
prised in  all  his  life  as  he  was  when  he  visited  my 
school." 

Then  came  a  contrast  between  the  city  school  and 
the  country  school. 

5.  Avoid  the  Wordy  Outline. — A  final  suggestion 
for  securing  variety  in  the  organization  of  composi- 
tion is  to  suggest  each  item  in  the  outline  in  only  a 
word  or  two.  Outlines  made  up  of  sentences  or  long 
phrases  are  bad,  for  the  children  soon  learn  to  supply 
a  few  predicates,  an  adjective  or  an  occasional  modi- 
fying phrase  or  clause  and  the  composition  is  com- 
plete. The  scantier  the  outline,  the  better. 

How  Closely  Shall  the  Outline  Be  Followed? — A  final 
problem  which  arises  in  the  course  of  the  employment 
of  the  outline  is  the  extent  to  which  the  children  shall 
consciously  follow  it.  The  answer  cannot  be  didactic 
nor  positive.  It  all  depends  upon  (a)  the  nature  of 

74 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR   GRADES 

the  composition,  and  (b)  the  age  and  capabilities  of 
the  children.  When  the  topic  is  one  of  exposition, 
or  narration,  or  argumentation,  then  logical  sequence 
is  exceedingly  important  in  securing  clearness  and 
force.  But  in  writing  a  description  of  a  person,  a 
sunset,  a  brook,  or  a  quaint  room,  the  ultimate  aim 
is  to  give  a  lasting  and  vivid  impression  of  the  pic- 
ture; here  the  choice  of  detail  rather  than  the  se- 
quence of  facts  is  the  vital  problem,  hence  the  out- 
line need  only  be  followed  in  its  general  trend. 

As  far  as  the  child's  age  and  capabilities  are  con- 
cerned, it  may  be  safe  to  assert  that  through  the  sixth 
year  of  the  elementary  course,  the  outline  must  be 
a  conscious  prop  in  composition,  and  must  inevitably 
take  a  considerable  part  of  the  oral  period  which  pre- 
pares for  the  final  expressional  exercise.  But  there- 
after, it  should  gradually  begin  to  assume  a  minor 
place  in  the  preparatory  period,  not  that  the  outline 
is  now  less  important  but  because  a  habit  of  mind 
should  have  been  formed  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  years 
of  the  school  course.  Where  the  outline  is  properly 
taught  and  impressed  through  drill  of  sufficient  fre- 
quency during  these  two  years,  the  child  should  be 
able  in  the  later  years  of  the  school  course  to  organize 
facts  without  aid  or  direction.  Pupils  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  years  when  confronted  by  a  composition 
subject,  should  habitually  think:  (a)  What  is  the 
subject  as  a  whole,  i.  e.,  what  mass  of  facts  comes 
under  it?  (b)  What  are  the  best  groupings  of  these 
facts,  i.  e.,  how  many  paragraphs  do  I  want  and  what 
are  they?  (c)  How  shall  I  organize  each  paragraph? 

75 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

and  (d)  what  is  an  appropriate  opening  sentence  and 
closing  sentence?  Before  writing  his  composition,  the 
child  should  give  evidence  of  having  accomplished  this 
organization.  The  outline  should  be  made  a  part  of 
the  composition  and  may  even  be  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  sheet. 

Supplementary  Means  of  Developing  Power  of  Organ- 
ization.— In  addition  to  the  formal  lessons  on  the  use 
of  the  outline,  various  supplementary  methods  can  be 
incorporated  in  all  periods  for  developing  in  children 
a  sense  of  logical  organization.  After  a  story  is  read 
to  the  children,  or  by  them,  a  few  minutes  may  profit- 
ably be  spent  in  eliciting  from  the  pupils  the  outline 
that  must  have  guided  the  author.  Various  games 
and  processes,  that  make  up  the  work  of  the  physical 
training  and  the  manual  training  periods  respectively, 
may  be  submitted  to  careful  analysis,  and  the  steps  in 
the  procedur enlisted  in  proper  sequence.  In  all  lessons 
the  teacher  should  take  occasion,  in  the  summary,  to 
call  the  attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  organization 
of  the  facts  that  guided  her  in  planning  the  topic  for 
the  period.  Thus,  after  a  geography,  a  history  or  a 
nature-study  lesson,  the  teacher  naturally  calls  upon 
the  class  to  summarize  the  most  essential  facts.  As 
the  lesson  is  retraced,  step  by  step,  by  the  children, 
the  main  topics  and  subtopics  should  be  listed  on  the 
board.  When  this  summary  is  completed,  the  chil- 
dren see  the  sequence  which  governed  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  lesson.  Then,  too,  all  study  lessons  can 
be  made  informal  but  nevertheless  direct  means  of 
teaching  children  the  art  of  organization.  The  child 

76 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

who  studies  his  lesson  in  geography  tries,  first,  to  as- 
certain the  meaning  of  the  text  and  then  to  group  the 
most  important  facts  in  a  logical  outline  before  com- 
mitting to  memory  any  of  the  data.  These  study  les- 
sons make  unmistakable  contributions  to  the  child's 
growing  sense  of  organization. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  VIII. 


CHAPTER   VI 

COMPOSITION  IN  THE  GRAMMAR   GRADES 
(Continued) 

EXPRESSIONAL    LIMITATIONS:     THE    MODEL 

The  method  of  teaching  composition  in  the  gram- 
mar grades,  it  was  seen,  must  be  governed  by  the  basic 
difficulties  which  confront  the  teacher,  viz.,  lack  of 
content,  lack  of  organization,  and  expressional  limita- 
tions. The  first  two  of  the  three  have  already  been 
considered  in  detail  in  the  preceding  chapters.  We 
must  now  turn  to  the  third  factor  which  makes  chil- 
dren's work  poor  and  the  teacher's  problem  difficult 
— expressional  limitations,  which  consist  of  (a)  un- 
grammatical  forms,  ,(b)  confused  and  awkward  ex- 
pressions, and  (c)  paucity  of  vocabulary  of  necessary 
words.  Time  and  the  influences  of  general  education 
tend,  in  a  measure,  to  overcome  these  three  limitations 
and  strengthen  the  child  along  these  very  weak  lines, 
for  as  the  child's  education  progresses  he  learns  the 
primary  laws  of  grammar,  gradually  acquires  better 
expressions,  and  in  the  course  of  his  daily  reading, 
conversation,  or  study,  enriches  his  limited  stock  of 
words.  But  all  these  modes  are  governed  by  chance. 
What  specific  means  have  we  of  bringing  about  prog- 
ress in  these  directions  ?  In  the  main,  these  are  four : 

78 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR   GRADES 

(i)  'group  teaching,  (2)  a  wise  use  of  the  outline, 
(3)  establishing  an  intimate  relationship  between 
grammar  and  composition,  and  (4)  the  use  of  the 
model. 

1.  Group  Teaching.— It  is  the  common  experience 
of  all  teachers  that  children  usually  vary  greatly  in 
expressional  ability.  Natural  gifts  seem  to  assert 
themselves  in  composition  in  most  unmistakable  terms. 
Some  children  are  precocious  in  their  expressional 
work,  some  are  exceedingly  good,  while  others  seem 
hopelessly  behind.  The  following  compositions  were 
written  by  two  children  in  a  seventh-year  class.  Both 
these  boys  had  been  in  attendance  the  same  time,  came 
from  about  the  same  kind  of  home,  and  were  in  Amer- 
ica about  the  same  number  of  years. 

KING  JOHN 

King  John  was  a  cruel  king.  He  cared  more  for  money 
than  for  his  people.  Sometimes  he  would  torture  people  just 
to  see  them  in  pain.  One  day  the  barons  rebelled  and  made 
him  sign  a  paper  called  the  Magna  Carta.  This  gave  them 
rights  they  never  had  and  put  King  John  under  control. 

KING  JOHN 

King  John  was  a  very  crul.  He  did  not  care  for  nobody 
but  himself.  People  were  very  angry  on  him.  They  gave 
him  a  peace  of  paper  wich  was  called  magn  Cart  wich  he 
was  to  sign  to  the  peple. 

What  a  ludicrous  attempt,  therefore,  is  the  compo- 
sition lesson  which  assigns  the  same  topic  to  all  chil- 

79 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

dren,  presents  the  new  principle  simultaneously  to 
them  and  expects  the  same  standard  of  result  from 
such  varying  abilities !  What  a  wrong  to  neglect  those 
able  and  gifted  in  expression  or  to  stultify  their  power 
by  dragging  them  down  to  the  level  of  the  mediocre ! 
How  stupid  to  expect  the  backward  and  hopelessly 
deficient  to  keep  up  with  the  standard  of  general  class 
progress!  When  shall  we  realize  that  indiscriminate 
class  teaching  which  neglects  personal  aptitudes  or 
weaknesses  and  individual  needs,  stifles  unmeasured 
ability  on  the  one  hand  and  perpetuates  hopeless  igno- 
rance on  the  other!  The  need  for  group  teaching, 
for  teaching  according  to  personal  capacity,  is  more 
urgent  in  composition  than  in  any  other  elementary 
school  subject.  The  possibilities  for  grouping  are 
here  more  numerous  and  the  conveniences  for  group 
teaching  are  greater,  yet  teachers  are  less  prone  to 
group  in  this  subject  than  in  others.  The  difficulties 
that  a  pupil  encounters  in  composition  are  peculiarly 
personal,  hence,  only  as  we  try  to  approximate  indi- 
vidual work  in  composition,  will  the  child  outgrow 
his  personal  expressional  limitations. 

2.  The  Outline. — A  good  outline,  it  was  shown,  is 
a  great  help  toward  clear  and  direct  thinking.  But 
expression  follows  thought;  hence,  clearness  of  ex- 
pression is  the  inevitable  sequel  to  clearness  of  think- 
ing. The  outline,  by  systematizing  the  child's  ideas, 
guarantees  the  necessary  antecedent  of  clear  and 
forceful  expression. 

3.     The  Intimacy  of  Grammar  and  Composition. — A 
third  factor  that  seeks  to  minimize  and  correct  ex- 

80 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

pressional  limitations  is  the  close  relationship  of  gram- 
mar to  composition.  The  ideal  course  in  grammar 
is  so  planned  that  it  emphasizes  those  parts  that  can 
be  of  service  in  writing,  or  can  become  standards  of 
judgment  and  correction;  the  ideal  grammar  lesson 
has  its  origin  in  the  faults  committed  by  the  chil- 
dren in  their  composition  and  finds  its  application  in 
correction  of  these  same  faults.  For  purposes  of  il- 
lustration let  us  suppose  that  an  examination  of  a  set 
of  compositions  shows  a  tendency  toward  sentences 
related  in  thought  but  independent  in  construction, 
giving  a  very  amateurish  and  childish  effect.  Ex- 
amples of  this  prevalent  weakness  are,  "Columbus 
was  a  bold  navigator.  He  never  feared  to  sail  un- 
known seas" ;  "The  Civil  War  was  a  long  and  bloody 
conflict.  It  brought  untold  human  misery."  A  num- 
ber of  sentences  similar  in  looseness  of  structure  are 
put  on  the  board.  By  a  few  well-chosen  questions  the 
teacher  elicits  that  each  pair  of  sentences  has  the  same 
subject  and  that  they  can  readily  be  united  into  one. 
The  ever  ready  "and"  will  undoubtedly  be  offered 
but  again  the  children  can  be  led  to  see  that  the  same 
looseness  of  structure  is  still  present.  If  no  pupil 
can  combine  the  first  two  sentences  to  produce  a  sus- 
pended sentence,  the  teacher  offers,  "Columbus,  who 
was  a  bold  navigator,  never  feared  to  sail  unknown 
seas."  As  the  loose  sentence,  "Columbus  was  a  brave 
navigator  and  never  feared  to  sail  unknown  seas,"  is 
compared  with  the  suspended  one,  the  children  readily 
feel  the  difference  in  force  and  the  superior  ability 
of  the  latter  to  command  attention  to  the  very  last 

81 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

word.  It  is  now  a  simple  matter  to  elicit  from  the 
class  that  the  word  "who"  made  possible  this  im- 
provement in  their  loose  sentence  structure.  In  the 
same  way  the  succeeding  pair  of  sentences  are  taken 
up  and  the  children  led  to  see  the  value  of  such  words 
as  "which,  who,  whose,  whom,"  etc.  The  question, 
"What  shall  we  study  in  our  grammar  lesson  to-day?" 
brings  the  answer,  "The  words,  who,  which,  whose, 
whom."  The  lesson  is  thus  justified,  a  vital  motive 
that  prompts  dynamic  interest  is  supplied,  and  a  defi- 
nite aim  is  established  for  the  period.  At  the  end 
of  the  lesson  each  child  carefully  reads  his  last  com- 
position and  improves  every  loose  construction  by  a 
form  of  the  relative  pronouns  he  has  learned.  Such 
lessons  make  grammar  real  and  enable  the  child  to  im- 
prove his  speech  by  intelligent  self-criticism  and  cor- 
rection. 

THE    MODEL 

The  most  potent  single  factor  in  elevating  standards 
of  expression  is  the  model.  Its  place  in  the  teaching 
of  composition  must  receive  our  attention  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  chapter. 

4.  Basic  Principle  of  Teaching  Language  Through  a 
Model. — The  psychological  principle  which  justifies 
the  emphasis  that  is  to-day  placed  on  the  model  as 
an  aid  in  the  teaching  of  composition,  is  the  oft-quoted 
dictum,  "Language  is  learned  through  imitation." 
The  model  is  studied  appreciatively  until  its  appeal 
sinks  deep  and  becomes  part  of  the  pupils,  so  that  un- 
consciously a  child  reproduces  its  wording  and  its 
phrasing  in  his  own  speech.  This  method  of  teaching 

82 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

composition  based  on  imitation  is  not  a  process  of  in- 
struction peculiar  to  the  school;  it  is  the  method  fol- 
lowed by  writers  of  the  first  rank.  Stevenson  tells 
us,  "I  always  kept  two  books,  one  to  read,  one  to 
write  in.  ...  Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage 
that  pleases  me,  I  must  always  sit  down  and  ape  that 
quality.  ...  I  have  thus  played  the  sedulous  ape  to 
Hazlitt,  to  Lamb,  to  Wordsworth.  .  .  .  That  is  the 
way  to  learn  to  write/'  Many  of  the  great  masters 
have  developed  technique  by  this  method.  We  see  then 
that  we  need  not  concern  ourselves  very  vitally  with 
those  teachers  and  principals  who  refuse  to  use  the 
model  because  "it  means  imitation  and  a  curbing  of 
individuality  of  expression."  Properly  used  the  model 
discourages  that  peculiar  individuality  of  expression 
that  children  can  well  afford  to  lose. 

The  Selection  of  the  Model. — The  proper  choice  of  a 
model  will  often  determine  the  spirit,  the  enthusiasm, 
the  efficiency  of  the  lesson  itself.  What  considera- 
tion should  guide  the  teacher  in  making  the  selection 
for  a  particular  class? 

i.  The  Model  Must  Be  Above  the  Children  in  Tone 
but  not  in  Comprehension. — The  trite  advice,  "Use 
models  of  plain  everyday  English,"  has  little  to  jus- 
tify its  application.  The  model  must  present  no 
thought  difficulty;  it  must  be  on  the  child's  level  of 
comprehension  and  interest.  But  its  tone  and  spirit 
must  be  literary  and  lofty,  so  that  the  child  consciously 
looks  up  to  the  model.  Dr.  William  H.  Maxwell,  Su- 
perintendent of  New  York  City  Schools,  therefore, 
cautions  teachers  not  to  make  up  their  own  models. 

83 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

He  insists  that  their  source  should  be  of  some  standard 
literary  repute. 

But  it  is  important,  however,  that  the  teacher  realize 
that  there  is  a  sharp  distinction  between  the  literary 
standard  of  the  child  whose  appreciation  is  crude  in 
the  extreme,  and  the  literary  requirement  of  the  adult 
whose  linguistic  taste  has  been  refined  through  years 
of  cultural  pursuits.  Judged  by  literary  canons,  a 
particular  selection  may  possess  unusual  merit,  but 
its  very  excellence  may  make  it  inappropriate  for  the 
pupil  of  school  age.  We  must  see  the  model  through 
the  child's  eyes  and  interpret  it  in  terms  of  the  child's 
interests,  otherwise  we  may  thrust  the  child  into  deep 
waters  from  which  he  cannot  emerge,  and  he  drowns 
in  utter  discouragement.  O'Shea,  in  his  "Linguistic 
Development,"  warns  us  therefore : 

The  pupil  must  feel  the  limitations  in  his  present  equip- 
ment before  he  can  appropriate  readily  and  effectively  the 
means  of  extending  it.  So  it  is  poor  policy  to  give  pupils  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  years  and  even  in  the  high  school, 
models  in  literary  expression  taken  from  the  involved  writ- 
ings of  Milton,  Shakespeare,  Bacon,  Tennyson,  Addison  and 
the  like.  The  formal  grammatical  and  rhetorical  textbooks 
are  full  of  complicated  but  excellent  examples  of  expression, 
judged  from  the  standpoint  of  the  appreciative  adult,  culled 
from  the  world's  great  literature,  the  aim  being  to  illustrate 
every  quality  of  strength  and  grace  and  efficiency  in  style 
by  the  best  instances  to  be  found  anywhere.  But  there  is  an 
error  here  which  runs  through  much  of  our  educational 
theory;  what  is  logically  "best"  in  adult  appreciation  is  in- 
terpreted to  be  most  suitable  for  the  child  at  every  stage  of 
his  development. 

84 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

Bearing  this  warning  in  mind,  the  following  letter 
of  the  late  Richard  Mansfield  to  his  son  Gibbs  meets 
the  first  requisite  of  an  appropriate  model.  It  is  charm- 
ing in  its  simplicity.  Its  diction,  its  force,  and  its  ease 
raise  it  to  a  literary  plane. 

Private  Car  80, 
Colorado  Springs,  May  27. 

MY   DEAR,   DEAR   BOY  I 

I  received  your  beautiful  letter,  and  I  was  proud  to  think 
that  you  could  dictate  it  yourself.  Of  course,  you  want  to 
go  fishing,  so  does  your  Dada,  and  also  to  go  rowing,  but  he 
is  sorry  you  do  not  want  to  play  Indian.  Playing  Indian  is 
great  fun,  for  you  carry  a  gun  or  a  bow  and  arrow,  and  you 
lope  all  day  long  after  somebody  without  stopping  to  eat  or 
drink,  and,  when  at  last  you  find  this  somebody  that  you 
have  been  looking  for  you  get  down  on  your  stomach  and 
wriggle  like  a  snake  without  making  any  noise  until  you 
reach  him. 

Then  you  give  a  dreadful  whoop  and  cut  off  his  hair,  if 
he  has  any,  and  hang  it  up  in  your  wigwam. 

There  are  lots  of  other  things  you  can  do,  but  it  is  time 
for  me  to  talk  of  something  else  now.  I  am  sitting  in  my 
car  and  the  lamps  are  lighted  and  are  covered  with  pink 
shades,  and  outside  it  is  raining  (it  wouldn't  be  pleasant  if 
it  were  raining  inside,  would  it?)  and  the  drip,  drip,  drip  of 
the  rain  on  the  roof  makes  me  feel  very  cosy  and  sleepy. 
If  you  were  here,  I  would  give  you  some  beautiful 
marbles  to  play  with,  and  you  could  sit  on  the  rug  and  roll 
them. 

To-day  it  rained  so  hard  that  all  the  little  streams  drank 
so  much  water  that  they  grew  and  grew  and  grew  until  they 
became  giants,  and  then  they  were  proud  and  naughty,  and 
took  the  bridges  and  the  rails  in  their  quivering  hands  and 
tore  them  away,  so  that  your  Dada's  train  could  not  go  any 
farther.  When  you  are  a  grown-up  engineer  you  will  build 

85 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

bridges  and  rails  that  the  giant  streams  can't  tear  away, 
won't  you? 

On  Sunday  I  went  for  a  drive  with  Mr.  Dillon,  and  we 
went  to  a  spring  where  real  soda  water  bubbles  out  of  the 
ground,  and  then  drove  home  through  a  place  called  the 
Garden  of  the  Gods,  where  there  are  rocks  formed  by  Na- 
ture to  look  like  eagles  and  frogs  and  little  old  men  and  all 
kinds  of  people  and  things,  and  we  saw  a  little  baby  donkey, 
a  real  one,  and  your  Dada  bought  it  for  his  little  boy,  and 
if  he  is  as  good  as  he  always  is  (not  the  donkey,  but  the 
boy),  then  Dada's  boy  can  ride  and  drive  it  next  year, 
please  God. 

And  now  Dada  kisses  his  boy  just  one  hundred  and  one 
times  and  fifty  and  a  half  are  for  mudder.  Jefferson  is 
bringing  Dada's  supper,  and  Dada  is  going  to  eat  it  and 
thank  the  Lord  he  has  such  a  good  boy  and  such  a  dear 
mudder.  DADA. 


Compare  this  literary  letter,  charming  and  appeal- 
ing in  its  simplicity  but  essentially  on  the  child's  level 
of  comprehension  and  interest,  with  the  following  flat 
and  insipid  models  offered  to  teachers  by  principals 
who  believe  that  "models  must  be  on  the  plane  of 
everyday  English." 

JACK  AND  THE  BEANSTALK 

Jack  lived  with  his  mother.  She  was  a  poor  widow.  A 
giant  had  killed  her  husband  and  stolen  her  gold. 

One  day  the  widow  told  Jack  to  sell  her  cow.  The  foolish 
boy  sold  it  for  a  few  beans.  His  angry  mother  threw  the 
beans  out  of  the  window.  The  next  morning  Jack  found  a 
beanstalk  growing  outside  his  window.  It  seemed  to  reach 
the  sky. 

86 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

THE  GOLDEN  TOUCH 

There  was  once  a  king  named  Midas.  His  little  daughter's 
name  was  Marygold. 

The  king  loved  gold  very  much.  So  he  was  given  the 
golden  touch.  Then  everything  he  touched  became  gold. 

At  first  this  made  the  king  feel  very  happy.  One  day  he 
touched  his  little  daughter.  She  became  a  golden  statue. 
Then  the  king  was  glad  to  get  rid  of  the  golden  touch. 

These  pseudo-models  lack  zest  and  inspiration ;  they 
are  entirely  devoid  of  literary  merit  and  cannot  there- 
fore stir  in  the  child  a  spark  of  enthusiastic  appre- 
ciation. How  inferior  does  the  second  selection  ap- 
pear in  contrast  with  the  composition  written  by  a 
fourth-year  child  in  spite  of  the  repressive  influence 
of  the  principal's  literary  sense. 

KING  MIDAS 

Many  hundreds  of  years  ago  there  lived  in  a  far-off  land 
a  king  whose  name  was  Midas.  He  had  a  beautiful  little 
daughter  named  Marygold.  The  king  loved  her  very  much. 

Midas  was  very  greedy.  One  day,  a  fairy  came  to  him 
and  told  him  he  could  have  any  wish  he  pleased.  The  king 
said,  "Oh,  kind  fairy,  please  give  me  the  gift  that  everything 
I  touch  should  turn  into  gold."  The  beautiful  fairy  touched 
him  with  her  wand,  and  said,  "King  Midas,  you  may  have 
your  wish."  Then  Midas  was  very  happy. 

His  happiness  did  not  last  very  long.  He  wanted  to  eat 
a  piece  of  bread — it  turned  to  gold.  He  touched  an  apple — 
it  turned  to  gold. 

One  day  he  was  in  his  treasure  house  counting  his  gold. 
His  little  daughter  Marygold  came  in  to  kiss  him  good  morn- 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

ing.  He  kissed  her  and  she  turned  to  gold.  Then  the  king 
fell  to  the  floor  in  a  swoon..  When  he  recovered  he  wished 
that  he  could  lose  the  gift.  Soon  the  fairy  came  back  and 
Midas  begged  her  to  take  back  the  gift.  She  took  it  back 
and  changed  everything  back  to  its  proper  form. 

YETTA  H 4A 

The  two  models  quoted  fail  badly  because  they 
violate  the  very  first  of  the  cardinal  principles  of 
selection, — they  are  not  above  the  children  in  tone  and 
spirit. 

2.  The  Content  of  the  Model  Must  Appeal  to  the 
Child's  Interest. — The  model  must  at  all  times  reflect 
the  child's  life  and  environment.  However  beautiful 
in  form,  however  lofty  in  appeal  and  literary  in  style, 
the  content  and  not  the  form  of  the  model  will,  in 
the  last  analysis,  attract  the  child.  We  must  be  sure 
that  there  is  something  active,  urgent  and  personal  in 
the  selection  that  is  presented  for  analysis  and  study. 
The  two  models  that  follow  illustrate  the  point  under 
consideration, — the  first,  however,  by  its  neglect  of 
this  requisite  quality. 

How  TO  PLAY  TENNIS 

Tennis  is  a  game  played  very  much  by  both  men  and 
women.  A  ball,  a  racket  for  each  player,  a  net,  and  a 
marked  court  are  needed. 

The  ball  is  hit  with  the  racket  by  the  first  player.  He 
must  place  the  ball  within  certain  lines  or  the  hit  counts 
against  him.  If  the  ball  is  placed  properly,  the  second  player 
must  hit  it  with  his  racket.  The  object  is  to  keep  hitting 
the  ball  and  placing  it  within  the  lines.  The  player,  who 
has  the  highest  count,  wins. 

88 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

How  "flat,  stale,  and  unprofitable"  is  this  imper- 
sonal, lifeless  explanation  when  compared  with  the 
following  personal,  active,  and  natural  exposition! 

How  I  BUILT  DAVIE'S  WAGON 

Little  David  is  but  six  years  of  age,  and  like  many  other 
youngsters  is  determined  to  have  his  way.  It  was  a  hot 
day  in  June  and  David  wanted  to  have  some  fun.  His 
heart  was  set  on  a  wagon.  He  stepped  up  to  his  hard 
working  father  and  said,  "Papa,  make  me  a  wagon.'*  I,  a 
friend  of  the  neighboring  carpenter,  was  standing  nearby. 
So  Mr.  Abelman,  turning  to  me,  said,  "If  you  don't  mind, 
George,  here  is  a  box,  some  tools  and  a  plank.  I  am  con- 
fident you  like  carpenter  work.  Go  into  the  back  yard  and 
make  Dave  a  wagon."  Having  nothing  to  do,  I  agreed  to 
this.  I  secured  wheels  and  set  to  work. 

The  first  thing  I  did  was  to  nail  a  plank  to  the  bottom  of 
the  box  exactly  in  the  center,  extending  it  a  yard  beyond 
the  front  of  the  box.  I  next  nailed  on  the  back  axle  and 
attached  its  wheels.  I  afterward  took  the  front  axle  and 
nailed  it  to  a  small  piece  of  flat  board.  I  bored  a  hole 
through  the  center  of  the  plank,  three  inches  from  its  end, 
and  another  through  the  small  piece  of  flat  board  on  which 
the  axle  was  nailed.  Then  I  put  a  large  screw  through 
these  holes  so  as  to  make  the  steering  apparatus.  Last  of 
all  I  attached  the  front,  smaller  wheels  and  a  cord  to  both 
ends  of  the  axle.  Now  everything  was  complete ;  the  wagon 
was  finished  and  a  pretty  good  job  it  was. 

You  can  imagine  David's  joy  after  the  completion  of  the 
wagon.  He  owned  a  wagon  he  could  call  his  own  and  made 
the  other  little  fellows  envious. 

3.  The  Model  Must  Illustrate  Only  One  Specific 
Principle. — The  model  that  exemplifies  many  princi- 
ples of  composition  usually  teaches  nothing,  for  in 

89 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

the  end  it  entails  diffusion  of  attention  and  results 
in  no  permanent  acquisition.  Select  a  model  because 
it  shows  how  to  describe  a  person,  how  to  describe  a 
place,  how  to  tell  an  incident,  how  to  write  a  dialogue, 
how  to  give  a  clear  exposition,  etc.  At  the  end  of  the 
period  the  child  must  consciously  feel  that  at  least  one 
lesson  has  been  made  central,  at  least  one  principle  of 
composition  has  been  learned  and  mastered. 

4.  Models  Should  Be  Reasonably  Short. — Another 
consideration  governing  a  good  choice  of  the  model  is 
its  length.     Models  should  be  short,  seldom  exceed- 
ing two  hundred  and  fifty  words.     The  long  model 
dissipates  energy  and  attention  and  weakens  the  point 
to  be  taught.     The  short  model  allows  for  closer  con- 
centration on  the  vital  point,  deeper  and  more  lasting 
impression,  and  easier  grasp  of  the  underlying  prin- 
ciple that  is  involved. 

5.  All  Models  Need  Not  Come  from  "Reputed  Lit- 
erary Sources." — A  final  suggestion  counsels  that  we 
use  the  best  compositions  of  the  last  class  as  models 
for  the  succeeding  pupils.     This  is  in  direct  contra- 
diction to  the  prevalent  belief  that  all  models  must 
have  "reputed  literary  sources."     The  model  of  "re- 
puted literary  source"  may  discourage;  its  very  per- 
fection may  preclude  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
child  to  imitate  and  approximate  it.     In  all  practical 
higher  endeavors  in  life  we  usually  strive  to  attain 
the  possible,  not  the  perfect.     Confronted  with  the 
perfect  literary  model  the  child  may   feel  his  help- 
lessness and  thus  put  forth  no  effort  in  his  discourage- 
ment.    One  of  the  great  limitations  of  the  old  en- 
go 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

graved  copy-books  was  that  the  copy  represented  per- 
fection; hence  failure  seemed  to  the  child  a  fore- 
gone conclusion.  But  with  the  product  of  one's  own 
classmates  as  a  model,  a  child  is  roused  to  healthy 
emulation,  for  the  goal  is  possible  and  probable. 

General  Treatment  of  the  Model.— Now  that  we  have 
justified  the  use  of  the  model  and  have  considered  the 
guiding  principles  in  making  the  most  appropriate 
selections,  we  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  method 
of  presenting  it  to  the  class.  To  make  it  easier  to  fol- 
low the  lesson  through  its  progressive  steps,  we  must 
take  a  specific  illustration  and  refer  all  procedure 
to  it.  "Gellert,"  a  narrative  model  offered  by  Sykes 
in  his  "Elementary  English  Composition"  (p.  16), 
will  serve  this  purpose  admirably. 

GELLERT 

Prince  Llewellyn  had  a  favorite  greyhound  named  Gellert, 
gentle  at  home  and  valiant  in  the  chase.  One  day  the  prince 
was  about  to  go  hunting  and  blew  his  horn  for  his  dogs. 
All  his  dogs  came  save  Gellert.  He  blew  again  and  called 
but  Gellert  did  not  come.  He  could  wait  no  longer  and  set 
off  without  his  favorite.  He  had  little  success  and  returned 
to  his  castle  vexed  at  his  ill  luck. 

As  he  came  up  to  the  castle-gate  Gellert  came  bounding 
out  to  meet  him.  But  the  prince  noticed  that  his  lips  and 
fangs  were  dripping  with  blood.  The  prince  was  startled. 
He  thought  of  his  infant  child  who  often  played  with  the 
dog.  Rushing  to  the  child's  room,  he  found  everything  in 
disorder,  the  cradle  overturned  and  daubed  with  blood. 
More  and  more  terrified  at  the  signs  of  conflict,  he  sought 
for  his  child  but  in  vain.  At  last  he  felt  sure  that  the  hound 
had  destroyed  his  son,  and  with  the  cry,  "Monster,  thou  hast 

91 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

devoured  my  child/'  he  plunged  his  sword  into  the  grey- 
hound's side. 

As  Gellert  gave  his  dying  yell,  a  cry  was  heard  from  be- 
neath the  overturned  cradle  and  there  Llewellyn  found  his 
child  unharmed  and  just  awakened  from  sleep,  and  beside 
him,  torn  in  pieces  and  covered  with  blood,  lay  the  body  of  a 
great  gaunt  wolf. 

Llewellyn  was  grieved  to  the  heart;  but  nothing  could 
bring  his  faithful  dog  to  life  again.  He  buried  him  by  the 
castle  wall,  and  over  his  grave  he  raised  a  great  cairn  of 
stones  so  that  every  passer-by  might  see  it  and  remember  his 
story.  And  the  place  to  this  day  is  called  Beth  Gellert  or 
the  Grave  of  Gellert. 

The  Model  in  the  Hands  of  the  Children. — Each 
child  must  be  supplied  with  a  copy  of  the  model. 
Merely  to  hear  the  model  read  by  the  teacher  will  not 
suffice  for  the  auditory  appeal  is  of  the  very  weakest. 
To  see  it  on  the  blackboard  may  help,  but  too  many 
children  cannot  see  all  of  the  writing  and  proper  con- 
centration is  impossible  with  the  disconcerting  cir- 
cumstances attending  such  a  presentation.  With  the 
model  in  the  hands  of  each  child,  the  proper  appeal 
can  be  made  and  the  necessary  concentration  and  at- 
tention can  be  given. 

The  Reading  by  the  Teacher. — The  lesson  itself 
should  begin  with  a  reading  of  the  model  by  the 
teacher,  the  children  following  on  their  individual 
copies.  To  call  upon  the  children  is  not  the  most 
advisable  procedure;  they  stumble  and  hesitate,  new 
words  confuse,  new  constructions  fail  to  arouse  proper 
meaning  and  the  necessary  expression  is  lost ;  all  these 
circumstances  militate  against  the  success  of  the  les- 

92 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

son.  The  teacher's  reading  gives  meaning  and  spirit 
to  the  selection;  the  expression  of  the  reading  will 
give  comprehension  even  where  words  and  phrases 
may  be  unfamiliar  to  the  children.  The  lesson  is 
thus  begun  with  proper  interest  and  attention  and  the 
proper  attitude  toward  the  work  is  aroused. 

The  Outline  of  the  Model  Developed. — The  next 
step  is  to  trace  the  structure  and  the  organization 
of  ideas  in  the  model.  With  this  end  in  view  the 
teacher  must  elicit  the  outline  of  the  model.  The 
children  read  it  silently  and  then  give  ( i )  the  name  of 
each  paragraph  by  pointing  out  the  topic  sentence. 

(2)  They  then  analyze  the  contents  of  each  paragraph 
and  test  for  paragraph  unity.     Is  the  topic  sentence 
justified?     Does    every    sentence    in    the    paragraph 
treat  of  the  theme  announced  in  the  topic  sentence? 

(3)  Attention  is  next  directed  to  the  sequence  of  the 
whole  series  of  paragraphs.    What  guided  the  author 
in  making  his  paragraphs  follow  as  they  do?     (4) 
The  children  are  finally  asked  to  consider,  What  are 
the  opening  and  the  closing  sentences?    Are  they  ef- 
fective ?    Why  ? 

The  Comprehension  of  the  Model. — Now  that  the 
children  have  seen  the  organization  of  the  model  and 
the  development  of  the  theme,  the  detailed  study  is 
begun.  The  teacher  must  see  that  all  necessary  words 
and  expressions  are  made  familiar,  that  unusually  ef- 
fective expressions  are  emphasized,  and  that  the  chil- 
dren are  led  to  imitate  them  orally  and  to  attempt  varia- 
tions upon  them.  Let  us  refer  to  "Gellert,"  the  illus- 
tration selected.  Do  the  children  know  the  meaning  of 

93 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

"greyhound,"  "save  Gellert,"  "fangs/5  "conflict,"  "de- 
voured," "gaunt,"  and  "cairn"?  If  they  do  not,  all 
further  study  must  wait  for  the  acquisition  of  this 
information.  "How  shall  it  be  given?"  the  teacher 
asks — "through  the  dictionary,  through  the  context, 
through  sentences,  through  word  study  and  etymol- 
ogy, or  through  direct  telling?"  Any  method  will 
suffice,  but  in  the  main,  the  direct  telling,  the  much 
condemned  didactic  method,  must  be  used,  for  the 
governing  object  of  the  lesson  is  not  to  study  words 
but  to  carry  away  the  spirit  and  the  form  of  the 
model  as  a  whole.  Since  mere  words  must  be  subor- 
dinated to  the  thought  and  its  expression,  the  shortest 
method  is  the  best. 

Drill  on  Superior  Forms  of  Expressions. — The 
teacher  now  turns  attention  to  the  best  phrases  in  the 
model  and  tries  to  bring  out  their  force  and  their 
worth  as  media  of  expression.  Thus,  "valiant  in  the 
chase,"  is  subjected  to  a  little  exercise  like  the  fol- 
lowing :  "How  would  you  express  the  same  thought  ?" 
To  this  query  of  the  teacher,  children  in  a  fifth-year 
class  replied,  "Brave  while  out  hunting,"  "Courageous 
while  out  hunting,"  "Fearless  while  chasing  the  deer," 
"Brave  while  pursuing  the  deer,"  etc.  The  statements 
offered  by  the  class  as  equivalents  were  compared 
with  the  original  expression  in  the  model  and  the  chil- 
dren were  led  to  note  its  superiority.  To  cap  the 
point  and  make  the  drill  effective,  insist  on  original 
application.  Let  the  children  give  a  list  of  situations 
where  the  phrase  can  be  applied,  e.  g.,  to  the 
fireman,  policeman,  soldier,  sailor,  etc.  Then  have 

94 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

them  construct  sentences  about  these  situations,  using 
the  expression  that  is  to  become  part  of  their  vocabu- 
laries, e.g.:  "The  fire  captain  was  valiant  at  the  scene 
of  the  rescue  of  the  old  woman,"  "The  policeman 
was  valiant  in  the  pursuit  of  the  burglar,"  "The 
general  was  valiant  in  the  attack,"  etc.,  until  an  ef- 
fective impression  has  been  made  and  the  expression 
is  on  the  highroad  to  the  goal  of  habit.  A  similar 
drill  can  be  given  on  "dripping  blood,"  "vexed  at  his 
ill  luck,"  "The  prince  was  startled,"  "but  in  vain,"  etc. 

But  the  teacher  may  object,  "When  will  the  oral 
period  come  to  an  end  if  each  good  expression  be 
made  focal  in  such  a  drill?"  Much  time  would  un- 
doubtedly be  consumed.  Since  the  time  is  necessarily 
limited,  we  must  sacrifice  the  number  of  expressions 
studied  to  the  thoroughness  of  the  drill.  The  teacher 
must  select  only  two  or  three  of  the  dozen  admirable 
phrases  and  make  sure  that  these  become  part  of  the 
children.  If  each  model  could  be  made  to  contribute 
two  or  three^  of  these  expressions  toward  the  child's 
permanent  linguistic  possessions,  each  term  would 
witness  unmistakable  progress. 

Emphasis  on  the  Principle  of  the  Composition  Illus- 
trated by  the  Model. — The  next  point,  and  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  lesson,  is  the  emphasis  on  the  spe- 
cific point  that  led  to  the  selection  of  the  model,  the 
drill  on  the  principle  of  composition  which  the  model 
illustrates. 

If  the  model  was  selected  to  illustrate  an  argumen- 
tative composition,  then  it  becomes  the  aim  of  the 
teacher  to  show  the  children  that  the  organization  re- 

95 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

quires  successively,  ( i )  that  the  topic  or  the  question 
be  stated,  (2)  that  the  outline  of  the  arguments  be 
foreshadowed,  (3)  that  the  first  argument  be  posited, 

(4)  that  the  proof  for  the  first  argument  be  given, 

(5)  that  the  following  arguments  and  their  proofs 
be  stated  in  the  same  way,   (6)   that  the  conclusion 
be  drawn  to  bring  home  the  contention  that  is  up- 
held throughout.     In  the  following  composition,  these 
points  are  attempted  after  a  study  of  the  model.    The 
child's  product  lacks  much  that  is  desirable,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  a  good  statement  of  what  the  child  feels 
and  thinks. 

RESOLVED:  THAT  EXAMINATIONS  ARE  UNNECESSARY 

Examinations  are  given  every  term  to  test  the  pupil 
of  his  or  her  knowledge  of  different  subjects.  It  is 
done  from  the  lowest  grade  in  the  primary  to  the  highest 
department  in  college.  The  question  arises,  "Are  these 
necessary  ?" 

j      I  firmly  believe  that  examinations  are  entirely  unnec- 
j  essary  because,  first,  they  make  the  pupil  nervous,  and 

3  •!  second,  marks  can  be  obtained  in  other  ways.    When  the 

pupil  is  in  the  examination  hall,  things  taught  her  leave 
her  head  entirely,  therefore  they  are  not  a  fair  test  of 

the  pupil's  knowledge.  It  is  much  better  to  count  the 
pupil's  recitations  during  the  term  than  for  them  to  be 
sent  on  short  notice  to  the  examination  hall,  as  one  is 
more  familiar  and  feels  more  at  home  in  one's  own 
classroom.  It's  hurtful  to  the  pupil's  health  as  it  works 
the  pupil  up  to  a  nervous  pitch  and  many  pupils  become 
very  ill  after  them. 

96 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

My  opponents  may  say  that  the  pupil  has  to  be  marked 
so  that  the  teachers  may  know  whether  he  or  she  is  fit 
to  go  on  to  another  grade,  but  that  can  be  done  by 
marking  the  pupil  on  his  or  her  daily  work,  and  averag- 
ing up  the  marks  on  the  different  subjects  at  the  end  of 
the  term.  Then  again  the  other  side  might  say  that  the 
pupil  might  become  more  nervous  standing  up  and  fac- 
ing the  class  while  reciting  than  just  answering  an  ex- 
amination paper,  but  again  I  say  one  feels  and  is  more 
at  home  in  the  classroom  and  with  the  teacher  than  in 
the  examination  hall.  They  also  might  say  that  if  one 
"is  not  healthy  enough  to  stand  an  examination  they 
should  not  be  at  school,  but  it  is  just  the  examinations 
that  make  them  unhealthy  and  nervous  after  the  exami- 
nations. ANNETTE  H 8B. 

When  the  model  is  used  to  teach  the  art  of  expo- 
sition, emphasis  is  laid  on  (i)  how  the  topic  to  be 
expounded  is  announced,  (2)  the  importance  of  care- 
ful sequence,  (3)  the  need  of  sentences  that  are  distin- 
guished by  their  simplicity  and  clearness.  As  a  final 
point  we  may  mention  that  the  child  should  be  taught 
the  test  of  good  exposition.  To  do  this  let  the  chil- 
dren follow  out  the  directions  and  see  if  the  result  is 
the  desired  end.  Thus,  in  the  composition  on  "How 
to  Lay  off  a  Baseball  Diamond,"  the  child  should 
actually  "lay  off,"  to  a  scale,  the  measurements  and 
the  lines  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  test  the  clearness 
of  the  exposition  and  the  logic  of  the  sequence. 
Whenever  an  exposition  is  written,  each  pupil  should 
be  required,  if  feasible,  to  express  diagrammatically 
or  graphically  the  directions  in  his  own  composition 
as  a  test  of  the  efficiency  of  his  written  work. 

97 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

In  the  case  of  narration,  the  analysis  of  the  model 
must  be  such  as  will  reveal  the  four  component  ele- 
ments of  a  good  narrative: 

1.  The  Plot,   "The  What?" 

2.  The  Characters,  "The  Who?" 

3.  Situation,  "The  Where— The  When?" 

4.  The  Purpose,  "The  Why?" 

The  introduction  must  give  the  "who,"  the  "where'* 
and  "when,"  and  the  "why";  the  succeeding  para- 
graphs offer  the  "what,"  the  plot.  The  child  thus 
learns  that  the  organization  of  a  narrative  lies  in  the 
sequence  of  events  as  they  happened  in  time,  that  the 
series  of  occurrences  begins  with  the  preliminary 
events  and  the  setting  of  the  scene,  and  gradually 
works  up  to  the  climax  which  in  its  turn  is  followed 
by  the  denouement,  the  surprise  in  outcome  or  ending. 
An  analysis  of  the  model  on  "Gellert"  reveals,  very 
readily,  this  structure.  Of  course,  it  is  obvious  that 
not  all  these  elements  and  principles  of  composition 
would  be  taught  in  any  one  period.  A  whole  lesson 
may  well  be  spent  learning  how  to  write  a  climax. 
The  children  analyze  the  model  and  note  that  the 
climax  is  preceded  by  rather  slow  movement,  long 
sentences,  discursive  style,  that  the  climax  has  maxi- 
mum movement  and  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  short 
sentences  and  independent  clauses.  Thus,  in  the  model 
studied,  we  find,  "The  prince  was  startled  .  .  . 
rushed  to  the  child's  room  .  .  .  everything  in  disor- 
der .  .  .  cradle  overturned  .  .  .  daubed  with  blood" 
.  .  .  Every  verb  is  an  action  word.  This  is  followed 
by  a  series  of  imitations  by  the  children,  in  which 

9s 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR   GRADES 

they  take  first  the  same  subject  and  then  similar  sub- 
jects for  their  themes.  The  teacher  takes  one  or  two 
topics  and  gives  his  climax  as  he  would  write  it;  the 
children  then  try  their  own.  Thus,  the  teacher  offers, 
as  the  climax  in  a  composition  on  "A  Fire" : 

The  smoke  was  now  curling  out  of  each  window.  It  be- 
came blacker  and  denser.  The  crash  of  breaking  glass  filled 
the  air.  Above  the  din,  a  sharp  cry  rang  out.  A  helpless 
woman  stood  on  the  third  floor  fire-escape.  A  sheet  of 
flame  now  leaped  out  of  the  story  above.  The  upper  struc- 
ture was  almost  entirely  enveloped.  "Help !  Help !"  was 
taken  up  by  all  bystanders.  But  help  was  almost  beyond 
human  power. 

The  children  are  asked  to  suggest  a  similar  situa- 
tion and  the  teacher  offers  to  give  the  climax  in  appro- 
priate form.  Suppose  that  the  children  suggest  "The 
Fire  Engine  and  the  Child."  The  teacher  proceeds: 

The  sharp  shrill  whistle  of  the  engine  is  piercing  the  air. 
The  heavy  wagon  is  rounding  the  corner.  The  strained  face 
of  the  driver  changes.  He  pulls  frantically  at  his  reins. 
What  can  be  the  matter?  See!  ...  a  child  in  the  road- 
way !  The  mother's  screams  ring  out  wildly.  The  bystand- 
ers are  in  dismay.  Horror-stricken  they  stand  motionless. 
I  shudder  to  see  what  the  next  moment  will  bring! 

As  the  children's  imaginations  conjure  up  new  situ- 
ations of  hairbreadth  escapes  and  breathless  excite- 
ment, the  teacher  gives,  on  the  moment,  the  fitting 
climax.  This  arouses  great  enthusiasm  and  the 
teacher  need  only  challenge  the  children  to  imitate  this 
construction  in  new  topics  that  he  may  assign.  A  com- 

99 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

petition  is  started,  to  see  which  pupil  can,  by  using 
short  sentences  and  independent  clauses  with  action 
verbs,  give  the  greatest  feeling  of  suspense  and  ex- 
citement in  the  situations  of  "A  Man  Overboard," 
"The  Stranded  Ship/'  "Columbus  Sighting  Land," 
"Pocahontas  Saving  Captain  John  Smith,"  "Crash- 
ing into  an  Iceberg,"  and  the  like.  Only  as  one  point 
is  made  focal  in  the  lesson,  harped  on,  imitated,  and 
repeated  from  varied  views  and  angles,  is  the  child's 
language  ability  developed. 

In  the  same  manner  we  treat  in  the  formal  lesson, 
a  model  description.  Now  the  teacher  carefully  brings 
home  the  fact  that  in  effective  description  we  should 
give :  ( i )  the  general  impression,  "As  I  looked  up, 
a  most  delightful  spectacle  confronted  me,"  etc.;  (2) 
the  point  of  view,  "There,  before  me,  stretching  to 
the  right  and  left,  lay  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water"; 
(3)  the  general  comparison,  "It  resembled  those 
charming  oval  lakes  that  stud  the  landscape  of  North- 
ern Maine  ";  (4)  choice  of  details,  use  of  color  and 
picture  words — those  words  and  details  which  empha- 
size the  calm  of  the  lake,  and  the  feeling  of  quiet 
satisfaction,  and  which  give  the  most  vivid  picture; 
(5)  the  lasting  impression,  "It  was  one  of  those 
haunts  of  Nature  where  peace  and  contentment  reign." 

Here  again,  we  must  remember  that  for  any  one 
lesson  only  one  point  is  selected  and  the  drill  is  given 
to  make  that  a  permanent  acquisition.  Let  us  sup- 
pose that  details  and  color  words  are  to  be  empha- 
sized in  the  study  of  a  particular  model  of  description. 
"Der  Kleine  Johannes"  is  studied  and  the  children  are 

100 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 


led  to  see  that  all  details,  all  words,  suggest  tranquillity, 
peace  of  nature  and  of  man.  A  new  topic  is  given,  the 
dominant  characteristics  are  elicited  and  suitable  adjec- 
tives listed  on  the  board  in  preparation  for  the  drill. 


Topic 


I.  A  Rapid  River 


2.  A  Snowfall 


3.  A  Beggar 


4.  Brooklyn 
Bridge  by 
Day  and  by 
Night 


5.  A  Street  Scene 


Characteristics 

I.  movement 
mass  of  water 
noise 


2.    Slow 

quiet 
calm 
pure 


fear 
disgust 


4.  Contrast  of  im- 
pression 


5.  noise 
rush 

hurry  scurry 
insignificance  of 
the  individual 
101 


Adjectives 

1.  noisy 
turbulent 
rushing 
whirling,  etc. 

2.  Same  words  as 

characteristics 


3.  ragged 
hungry 
thin 
pale 
sickly 
dirty 
shaking 
pleading,  etc. 

4.  Contrast  of  ad- 

jectives 


5.  Same  words  as 
characteristics 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Each  topic  is  now  taken  up  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
suggestions  on  the  blackboard,  the  descriptions  are  at- 
tempted orally  by  the  children.  In  this  way  a  number 
of  themes  can  be  outlined  and  elaborated  in  the  oral 
period  and  the  child  learns  that  in  writing  the  de- 
scription of  a  place,  a  person,  or  a  thing,  only  such 
characteristic  details  and  color  words  are  selected  as 
will  give  the  auditor  or  reader  one  predominant  and 
permanent  impression. 

But  it  may  be  argued,  "Why  study  these  forms  in 
the  elementary  school  ?"  It  is  true  that  when  children 
leave  school  they  will  not  indulge  in  descriptive  para- 
graphs nor  does  their  correspondence  require  an  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  technical  structure  of  nar- 
ration or  exposition.  While  this  must  undoubtedly 
be  admitted,  we  cannot,  however,  draw  the  conclusion, 
"Therefore  do  not  teach  these."  We  are  engaged  in 
teaching  correct  expression;  and  these  forms  are  the 
media.  Even  though  letter  writing  does  constitute 
the  sum  total  of  the  written  composition  in  the  later 
life  of  most  people,  a  letter  which  rises  above  the 
level  of  personal  twaddle  and  gossip  shows  touches  of 
description,  of  narration,  of  exposition  and  of  argu- 
mentation. And,  finally,  we  must  remember  that  these 
composition  exercises  have  their  value  and  applica- 
tion in  the  literature  lessons.  When  in  the  course 
of  future  reading,  the  child  sees  a  passage  that  in- 
terests him,  he  can  analyze  it  and  criticize  it  in  terms 
of  his  standard.  His  eyes  are  open,  for  instance,  to 
the  masterful  picture  of  Ichabod  Crane,  to  Irving's 
happy  choice  .of  characteristic  details  and  rich  picture 

1 02 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE   GRAMMAR    GRADES 

words.  These  exercises,  properly  presented  and 
stressed,  teach  the  child  the  technique  of  expression 
and  give  drill  until  correct  forms  become  habit  in  both 
oral  and  written  speech. 

The  Final  Reading  of  the  Model. — The  topic  un- 
der discussion  is  the  consideration  of  a  method  of 
teaching  the  model.  The  mode  of  procedure  fol- 
lows a  number  of  steps :  ( i )  the  reading  of  the  model 
by  the  teacher,  (2)  the  outline  of  the  model  for  the 
study  of  its  sequence,  (3)  a  study  of  unfamiliar  but 
necessary  wording  and  phraseology,  (4)  a  study  of 
the  basic  principles  for  which  the  model  is  chosen. 
The  final  step  in  the  study  of  the  model  requires  that 
we  have  a  final  reading  of  it,  either  by  the  teacher 
or  by  one  of  the  best  readers  among  the  pupils.  The 
reasons  for  this  last  reading  are  many  and  obvious. 
In  the  course  of  the  analytical  and  detailed  study,  the 
model  was  well  dissected.  It  is  now  necessary  to  give 
a  unified  impression.  The  final  reading  leads  not 
only  to  this  end  but  to  an  increased  familiarization. 
In  addition  one  always  experiences  a  keen  pleasure 
from  an  increased  appreciation  of  old  knowledge.  It 
is  in  this  final  reading  that  the  child  sees  how  much 
the  lesson  has  meant  to  him,  how  much  more  he  now 
reads  into  it,  and  consequently  how  much  more  he 
reads  out  of  it. 

How  Closely  Shall  the  Model  Be  Followed? — Having 
presented  the  model  systematically  and  thoroughly, 
the  teacher  must  next  concern  herself  with  the  prob- 
lem of  how  closely  to  follow  it  in  the  course  of  con- 
scious imitation.  A  moment's  thought  will  show  the 

103 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

% 

futility  of  the  positive  answers  found  in  so  many 
manuals  on  composition.  -  Any  degree  of  imitation  is 
justifiable,  depending  upon  governing  circumstances. 
These  are  (i)  the  ability  of  the  children,  (2)  the 
previous  study  and  use  of  models,  (3)  the  nature  of 
the  topic.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  imitation 
will  vary  from  exact  transcription,  to  writing  on  the 
same  topic,  to  writing  on  a  kindred  topic,  to  studying 
the  model  after  the  original  is  written  by  the  child.  Imi- 
tation, therefore,  varies  from  the  appropriation  of  the 
exact  words  and  phrases  to  a  mere  reproduction  of 
form  and  spirit.  The  degree  of  imitation  hence  grad- 
ually grows  less  as  the  child  progresses  through  the 
grades.  But  even  in  the  upper  classes  different  privi- 
leges and  varied  treatment  must  be  accorded  to  the 
children  on  the  basis  of  ability.  If  we  follow  some 
group  system  of  teaching  composition,  then  children 
in  the  proficient  group  are  required  to  apply  the 
lessons  learned  from  the  model,  in  original  topics, 
while  those  in  the  second  division  who  are  medi- 
ocre or  deficient,  follow  the  model  closely,  write 
on  the  same  topic  and  try  to  reproduce  the  organ- 
ization and  even  in  parts  the  very  phraseology  it- 
self. 

Should  the  Model  Precede  or  Follow  the  Composition? 
— A  source  of  endless  contention  among  writers  on 
composition  is  the  time  when  the  model  is  to  be  studied 
— before  or  after  the  composition  is  written  by  the 
children.  The  debates  are  spirited  and  enthusiastic, 
each  side  claiming  the  glory  of  victory.  The  verdict, 
however,  cannot  be  given  to  either  side,  for  both  are 

104 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

correct,  each,  of  course,  in  its  own  circumstances. 
What  are  the  merits  in  the  dispute? 

Those  teachers  who  argue,  "before,"  that  the 
model  must  precede  the  child's  written  composition, 
insist  that  language  is  learned  through  imitation.  If 
the  model  is  not  given  the  child  before  the  written 
composition,  he  has  nothing  to  imitate.  When  a  new 
topic  is  presented  or  a  new  form  of  composition  is 
assigned,  the  child  feels  lost.  All  expression  is  para- 
lyzed in  the  face  of  the  technical  difficulties.  Let 
the  child  learn  the  mode  of  procedure,  the  organiza- 
tion, and  the  attack,  from  the  model,  and  the  feeling 
of  confidence  which  ensues,  guarantees  free  and  easy 
expression,  for  the  child,  unhampered  by  formal  prob- 
lems, expresses  his  mind  freely. 

Those  who  champion  the  opposite  side  of  the  con- 
troversy are  much  perturbed  by  such  a  contention,  for 
they  argue  that  to  present  the  model  first  kills  all 
originality  and  deadens  every  spark  of  personal  in- 
terest. The  child  is  too  immature  to  see  the  literary 
value  and  beauty  of  the  model.  Let  the  child,  there- 
fore, write  his  own  composition,  replete  with  crudi- 
ties and  flagrant  errors.  Then  let  him  study  the 
model,  compare  it  with  his  own  product  and  see  its 
inferiority  in  the  contrast.  Thus  there  will  be  aroused 
in  each  child  a  feeling  of  discontent  with  his  limi- 
tations and  he  will  be  spurred  on  to  greater  effort. 
But  may  it  not  entirely  dishearten  the  child  when  he 
perceives  his  own  inferiority? 

These  contestants  do  not  realize  that  there  are  two 
uses  of  a  model,  viz.,  a  standard  for  imitation  and  a 

105 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

standard  for  correction.  In  discharging  the  first  func- 
tion, the  model  must  naturally  be  used  before  the 
composition,  but  for  purposes  of  correction,  it  fol- 
lows the  child's  own  production.  Realizing  the  limi- 
tations of  any  arbitrary  law,  it  may  nevertheless  be 
stated  as  a  safe  tendency  that  through  the  sixth  year 
all  models  should  precede  children's  compositions,  for 
the  pupils  are  still  too  poor  in  language  possession 
to  launch  out  for  themselves.  In  the  seventh  and 
eighth  years  the  model  should  be  used  as  a  standard 
for  imitation  in  new  and  difficult  forms,  i.  e.,  in  de- 
scriptions, in  argumentations,  and  the  like.  But,  when 
the  topic  is  of  an  old  form,  a  narration,  or  a  business 
letter,  or  a  biography,  the  children  should  write  their 
own  compositions  first  and  then  use  the  model  as  a 
standard  for  correction.  The  model  is  studied  very 
carefully  and  then  the  original  compositions  are  cor- 
rected in  the  light  of  the  lessons  learned  and  the  limi- 
tations noted. 

How  to  Prevent  Slavish.  Imitation  of  the  Model. — The 
final  topic  in  the  discussion  of  the  model  is  the  means 
of  guarding  against  overimitation,  which  makes  com- 
position little  more  than  a  transcription  exercise  and 
kills  whatever  originality  and  enthusiasm  the  child 
may  have  in  his  self-expression.  The  suggestions 
that  are  offered  for  guarding  against  slavish  imitation 
are  simple  indeed,  though  often  neglected  in  the  rou- 
tine of  teaching. 

I.  Variety  of  Organisation. — The  simplest  method 
of  introducing  a  personal  note  in  the  compositions 
written  after  the  model  is  studied,  is  to  evolve  with 

1 06 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE   GRAMMAR    GRADES 

the  children  all  the  possible  forms  of  organizing  the 
facts  of  the  subject.  At  the  end  of  such  an  exercise 
each  child  decides  for  himself,  the  number  of  para- 
graphs he  will  have,  the  theme  of  each,  and  the  group- 

ng  of  facts  under  them.  It  is  evident  also  that  each 
mode  of  organization  will  have  its  appropriate  open- 

ng  and  closing  sentence.  In  discussing  the  element 
of  originality  in  the  outline,  instances  were  quoted 
from  children's  work  illustrating  the  point  under  dis- 
cussion. 

2.  Drill  on  Synonymous  Expressions. — In  the 
study  of  the  model  entitled  "Gellert"  it  was  shown 
how  rich  and  varied  an  exercise  can  be  worked  out 
by  eliciting  synonymous  expressions  for  "valiant  in 
the  chase."  Such  a  drill  entails  a  verbal  stock-taking 
which  leaves  the  child  with  a  more  varied  and  richer 
vocabulary.  In  the  "Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,"  we 
find  among  others,  the  expressions,  "The  town  was 
infested  with  rats,"  "The  people  were  beside  them- 
selves," "His  clothes  were  variegated,"  and  "gray 
rats,  brown  rats,  young  rats,  old  rats."  These  were 
made  basic  in  a  drill  on  variety  of  synonymous  ex- 
pressions with  a  fifth-year  class.  The  children  gave, 
"The  town  was  rat-ridden,"  "It  was  a  town  of  rats," 
"The  rats  of  the  universe  seemed  to  collect  there," 
"The  rats  made  the  town  their  home,"  "It  seemed  as 
if  no  rat  was  happy  unless  it  got  there,"  etc.,  for  the 
first.  "The  people  hardly  knew  what  to  do,"  "The 
people  were  driven  to  desperation,"  "The  problem 
seemed  hopeless  to  the  townsfolk,"  "The  townspeo- 
ple despaired  of  ever  getting  rid  of  the  rats,"  are 

107 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

types  of  equivalents  that  were  elicited  for  the  second. 
Such  a  drill  is  therefore  an  effective  means  of  guard- 
ing against  too  close  an  imitation  of  the  model. 

The  Variation  Method. — A  special  method  known 
as  the  "variation  method"  is  gaining  much  popu- 
larity in  many  schools.  Teachers  who  follow  this 
method  select  a  story  which  is  read  to  the  class.  The 
story  is  then  outlined  and  subdivided  into  logical  parts. 
The  first  logical  subdivision  is  treated  somewhat  as 
follows.  The  first  sentence  is  written  on  the  black- 
board. Subject,  predicate,  complement  and  important 
modifiers  are  marked  off  by  vertical  lines.  Each  part 
of  the  sentence  is  then  subjected  to  variations  and 
each  contribution  that  is  accepted  is  put  on  the  board 
in  its  proper  column.  The  writer  observed  such  a 
lesson  in  which  the  sentence  for  the  day  was,  "The 
old  scholar  arose  early  each  day  to  study  the  holy 
law."  For  the  subject,  "the  old  scholar,"  the  chil- 
dren offered :  "the  old  prophet,"  "the  prophet  of  old," 
"the  pious  old  man,"  "the  God-fearing  rabbi,"  "the 
religious  teacher,"  "the  old  religious  student."  For 
the  predicate  verb,  the  teacher  elicited,  "awoke,"  "be- 
stirred himself,"  "left  his  bed."  For  the  adverbial 
modifier,  "early  each  day,"  the  children  offered,  "at 
the  dawn  of  day,"  "at  the  first  sign  of  day,"  "at  the 
coming  of  daylight,"  "before  the  sun  showed  his 
face,"  "before  the  darkness  of  night  had  left,"  "when 
the  world  was  still  wrapped  in  the  darkness  of  the 
night."  Toward  the  end  of  the  period,  the  blackboard 
work  took  on  an  appearance  like  the  following,  each 
contribution  being  in  different  colored  chalk : 

108 


COMPOSITION  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 


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109 


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H 


THE   TEACHING    OF    ENGLISH 

Three  twenty  to  thirty  minute  lessons  were  devoted 
to  this  work  every  week  in  this  class.  At  the  end  of 
each  lesson,  each  child  selected  the  sentence  that  ap- 
pealed most  to  him.  Thus,  one  child  selected,  "The 
pious  old  man  bestirred  himself  at  the  coming  of 
daylight  to  learn  the  Holy  Book,"  as  his  synthetic 
product,  while  another  thought,  "The  old  prophet 
arose  at  the  first  sign  of  day  to  study  the  holy  law," 
the  best  combination.  The  sentence  selected  was 
copied  into  a  notebook.  Each  lesson,  therefore,  en- 
riched the  story  by  a  sentence  which  each  child  se- 
lected for  himself.  When  the  whole  story  was  thus 
gone  over,  each  child  had  the  same  story  told  in  a 
different  way. 

The  worth  of  such  a  procedure  'is  unquestionable. 
It  enriches  the  vocabulary,  giving  it  greater  flexi- 
bility and  breadth;  it  teaches  variety  of  sentence  struc- 
ture; it  maintains  active  interest  through  friendly 
and  helpful  rivalry;  and  exercises  to  a  large  degree, 
the  self -activity  of  the  child.  As  a  device  in  compo- 
sition, it  is  of  rare  worth.  But  as  a  method  to  sup- 
plant all  other  ways  of  teaching  composition,  it  must 
be  condemned.  Composition  teaching  means  train- 
ing in  logical  organization,  in  sustained  thinking, 
in  accurate  and  intelligent  observation,  in  spon- 
taneous expression.  These  ends  are  obviously 
and  necessarily  lost  sight  of  in  the  variation 
method. 

3.  Vary  the  Topic. — In  selecting  the  topic  for  com- 
position the  teacher  should  usually  take,  not  one  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  model,  but  rather  one  that  al- 

110 


COMPOSITION"    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

lows  general  imitation  only.  Care  must  be  exercised 
not  to  select  a  topic  so  similar  that  all  a  pupil 
need  do  is  to  change  the  name  from  "A  Fire- 
man" to  "A  Policeman";  from  "A  Sailor"  to  "A 
Soldier."  If  the  model  studied  gave  a  description  of 
a  mounted  policeman,  the  topic  for  composition  should 
call  for  the  description  of  a  beggar,  a  peddler,  a  for- 
eigner; in  a  word,  a  topic  in  which  the  principles 
learned  in  the  model  will  be  applied,  but  the  point  of 
view,  the  phraseology,  and  the  specific  organization 
will  allow  for  welcome  variety. 

Actual  experience  convinces  the  teacher  of  the  dead- 
ening effect  of  choosing  too  similar  a  topic.  In  a  4A 
class,  the  model  studied  was  "Little  Marie  of  Lehon." 
The  model  that  was  presented  for  the  literary  in- 
spiration of  the  children  ran  as  follows: 

There  she  was,  trotting  toward  us  in  her  round  cap,  blue 
woolen  gown,  white  apron,  and  wooden  shoes. 

On  her  head  was  a  loaf  of  buckwheat  as  big  as  a  small 
wheel.  In  one  hand  she  held  a  basket  full  of  green  stuff, 
while  the  other  led  an  old  goat  which  seemed  in  no  hurry 
to  go  home. 

She  was  a  rosy  bright-eyed  child.  She  looked  rather  shy 
and  always  seemed  in  haste. 

After  an  analytical  study  of  this  lifeless  and  in- 
sipid model  the  children  were  told  to  write  a  similar 
description  of  a  personal  friend.  A  typical  result  of 
such  an  assignment  is  quoted  so  that  the  reader 
may  make  the  comparison  and  draw  the  obvious 
moral. 

in 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

MY  FRIEND  JENNIE 

There  was  my  friend  Jennie.  She  was  jumping  a  rope. 
In  one  hand  she  carried  a  loaf  of  bread  and  in  the  other 
she  carried  a  pitcher  of  milk.  She  used  to  be  a  rosy  child 
but  she  is  pale  now. 

4.  Every  Composition  Should  Be  a  Personal  Com- 
position.— In  all  topics  the  teacher  must  have  the  chil- 
dren so  change  the  items  and  facts  of  the  model  that 
there  will  result  an  intensely  personal  expression.  An 
illustration  of  this  suggestion  is  found  in  a  common 
form  of  business  correspondence,  a  letter  of  applica- 
tion for  a  position.  But  no  matter  who  the  child  may 
be  who  writes  it,  in  what  class  it  is  written,  or  what 
position  is  applied  for,  it  is  always  the  same,  stupid, 
stiff  and  stilted  meaningless  formality, — "Having  seen 
your  advertisement  in  this  morning's  ...  I  herewith 
beg  leave  to  offer  myself  as  an  applicant  for  the  po- 
sition." There  is  no  justification  for  such  formality, 
for  few  letters  are  more  personal  and  urgent  than  an 
application. 

If  one  were  to  try  to  convince  an  employer  to  let 
him  have  a  particular  position  what  would  be  his  line 
of  argument?  First,  he  would  analyze  the  position 
and  make  a  list  of  the  necessary  qualifications  that 
one  must  possess  to  fulfill  the  requirements.  Second, 
he  would  proceed  to  prove  that  because  of  special 
training  and  experience,  he  possessed  these  qualifica- 
tions in  so  strong  a  measure  that  the  employer  could 
not,  in  justice  to  his  business  interest,  refuse  the  ap- 
plicant. This,  at  any  rate,  seems  to  be  the  course 

112 


COMPOSITION    IN    THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

dictated  by  the  urgency  of  the  situation.  Why  should 
we  teach  a  set  form  and  inflict  it  upon  our  children, 
with  all  its  meaningless  words,  when  it  is  precisely  the 
kind  of  application  that  would  never  make  a  favorable 
impression  ? 

Let  us  assume  that  a  boy  is  writing  a  letter  apply- 
ing for  a  position  as  errand  boy;  what  should  he 
include  in  his  letter?  What  are  the  demands  of  the 
position?  One  must  (a)  know  the  city,  (b)  be  quick 
and  alive,  (c)  be  honest  and  reliable.  In  the  light 
of  these  requirements  a  boy  should  say  (a)  that  he 
was  born  in  the  city,  hence  the  inference  is  that  he 
knows  the  city  streets  and  highways;  (b)  that  he  sold 
newspapers  for  two  years  and  is  therefore  alive  and 
alert;  (c)  that  he  served  as  cash  boy  in  a  department 
store  on  Saturdays  and  during  the  holiday  season  and 
can  bring  references,  thus  showing  that  he  is  honest 
and  trustworthy.  These  essentials  are  precisely  the 
very  items  that  children  who  follow  the  set  model  al- 
ways fail  to  mention. 

Another  illustration  will  suffice.  The  position  ap- 
plied for  by  a  class  of  sixth-year  boys  was  that  of 
"wagon  boy"  for  John  Wanamaker.  They  all  in- 
formed the  gentleman  that  they  noted  his  advertise- 
ment in  the  morning  newspaper,  that  they  begged 
leave  to  offer  themselves  as  applicants,  that  they  had 
completed  the  sixth  year  of  the  public  school,  that  they 
lived  with  their  parents,  that  they  could  bring  ref- 
erences from  principals  or  teachers.  But  the  employer 
is  not  interested  in  all  these  estimable  things.  They 
are  all  beside  the  mark.  To  qualify  for  the  position 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

one  must  know  the  streets  and  avenues  of  the  city; 
be  able  to  understand  more  than  the  English  language, 
because  so  many  foreigners  purchase  at  the  store; 
know  how  to  care  for  a  horse ;  be  alert  and  active,  and 
honest.  Let  the  children  list  these  requisites.  What 
can  they  offer?  "Born  in  New  York  City"  is  cer- 
tainly an  asset.  "I  can  speak  or  understand  German 
as  well  as  English,"  is  worth  adding.  "I  helped  on  a 
milk  route,"  is  another  qualification  that  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  position.  In  the  class  referred  to  al- 
most every  lad  spoke  one  other  language  besides  Eng- 
lish, but  the  fact  was 'not  mentioned;  ten  lads  could 
drive,  but  not  one  said  so.  Every  bit  of  personal  ap- 
peal was  lost  in  the  dead  formalism  of  the  model. 

5.  Teach  Through  Many  Models. — In  teaching  any 
principle  of  composition  in  grades  above  the  sixth 
year  more  than  one  model  may  be  used ;  two  or  three 
may  be  presented  and  the  principle  of  composition 
evolved  from  them.    The  point  is  taught,  but  the  va- 
riety of  the  appeal  guarantees  a  rational  rather  than  a 
slavish  imitation. 

6.  The  Model  after  the  Child's  Effort.— A  final  sug- 
gestion advises  that  just  as  soon  as  it  is  feasible,  the 
model   should  be  used  as  a  standard   for  correction 
rather  than  for  imitation,  hence  the  model  is  to  follow 
rather  than  precede  the  child's  original  composition. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  VIII. 

114 


CHAPTER    VII 
THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

In  introducing  the  subject  of  the  teaching  of  com- 
position in  the  grammar  grades,  it  was  observed  that 
the  method-whole  in  composition  required  three  sep- 
arate and  distinct  periods,  each  having  its  own  aim, 
function  and  organization.  These  were  designated 
(i)  the  period  of  oral  drill  and  teaching,  (2)  the 
period  of  written  composition,  and  (3)  the  period  of 
correction.  The  three  preceding  chapters  concerned 
themselves  with  the  conduct  of  the  first  of  these 
periods;  the  present  chapter  must  give  itself  to  the 
second  and  the  third.  We  must  pass,  therefore,  to  a 
consideration  of  the  second  period. 

The  Period  of  Written  Composition. — In  the  first  pe- 
riod the  science  of  composition  is  taught.  But  this 
aspect  of  the  subject  finds  its  justification  in  applica- 
tion and  in  rational  use.  The  second  period,  there- 
fore, concerns  itself  with  the  art  side  of  teaching. 
The  teacher's  task  of  instructing  and  the  pupils'  task 
of  learning  give  way  to  a  free  and  personal  expression 
by  the  children.  This  is  pre-eminently  their  period. 

The  Teacher's  Function. — But  it  must  not  be  er- 
roneously assumed  that  since  the  period  of  direct 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

teaching  is  over,  the  teacher  need  only  see  that  the 
children  are  amply  supplied  with  paper  and  ink  and 
started  on  their  written  work.  The  teacher's  function, 
though  not  instructional,  is  nevertheless  supervisory. 
Teachers  must  not  conveniently  eliminate  themselves 
from  this  period  merely  because  the  burden  of  the 
work  is  necessarily  thrown  upon  the  children. 

What  is  the  teacher's  work  of  supervision  in  this 
period  ?  First  we  must  mention  the  tireless  effort  that 
must  be  made  to  correct  bad  physical  posture  of  the 
children  during  written  work.  Impaired  eyesight, 
round  shoulders,  depressed  abdominal  cavities  are  a 
few  of  the  many  distressing  effects  due  to  bad  posture 
in  written  work.  The  most  essential  fact  to  remem- 
ber is  that  bad  posture  which  is  not  persistently  cor- 
rected soon  becomes  a  habit  from  the  clutch  of  which 
the  child  cannot  free  himself. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  character  of  the  work 
should  be  watched  constantly.  A  word  of  praise  to  a 
child  who  has  begun  well  keeps  the  fount  of  effort 
freely  flowing ;  a  word  of  warning  or  censure  awakens 
the  child  to  a  realization  that  he  must  approximate  a 
higher  standard.  While  the  children  are  writing,  the 
teacher  must  wralk  about  the  room,  up  and  down 
aisles,  and  inspect  work,  not  in  a  spirit  of  espionage 
but  rather  in  the  attitude  of  friendly  criticism  and 
constructive  supervision. 

In  this  period  children  should  feel  that  they  are  at 
liberty  to  ask  questions,  consult  the  dictionary  or  ver- 
ify facts  in  any  textbook  to  which  they  can  have 
access.  It  is  a  grave  error  to  deny  to  a  class  the  very 

116 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

privileges  that  we  ourselves  take  in  our  own  written 
work.  The  child  who  asks  the  teacher  whether  one 
says,  "None  of  them  are"  or  "None  of  them  is";  or 
whether  "principal"  is  correct  in  the  expression,  "The 
principle  which  explains  the  workings  of  the  magnet," 
shows  promise  and  healthy  development.  He  has 
reached  a  point  in  his  linguistic  growth  where  it  ac- 
tually makes  a  difference  to  him  whether  his  form  is 
correct  or  not.  Most  pupils  are  in  a  state  of  sublime 
indifference  to  the  laws  of  language  and  to  the  un- 
reasonable demands  of  our  unphonetic  spelling.  The 
teacher  need  not  answer  the  pupil  directly.  The  child 
who  wants  to  know  the  spelling  of  "emancipation"  is 
asked  to  suggest  the  first  two  syllables.  After  he  offers 
"e,  man,"  he  is  told  to  look  for  the  remainder  of  the 
word  in  the  dictionary.  Such  questions  as,  "When 
was  the  Battle  of  -  -  fought,"  or  "What  was  the 
name  of  the  general  who  ...  '  etc.,  can  be  an- 
swered by  "Look  for  the  name  in  the  index  of  your 
history  textbook."  But  where  a  direct  and  didactic 
answer  must  be  given,  it  should  be  offered  in  the 
earnest  spirit  which  prompts  the  child.  Questions  that 
are  asked  merely  for  the  sake  of  asking  questions  must 
be  treated  in  a  manner  designed  to  hastily  discourage 
the  offender. 

Cautions  in  Written  Composition.  —  Experience 
shows  a  few  common  errors  in  the  conduct  of  the 
written  composition  period  that  need  guarding,  for 
they  are  frequent  pitfalls  for  the  unwary.  We  must, 
at  all  times,  make  a  sharp  distinction  between  "com- 
position" and  "penmanship."  All  written  work  must 

117 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

always  show  care,  accuracy,  neatness  and  earnest  en- 
deavor to  produce  results  on  the  highest  level  that 
the  child  can  attain.  But  the  desire  for  good  pen- 
manship, for  "a  fine-looking  lot  of  compositions," 
must  not  befog  our  conception  of  "composition"  as  an 
expressional  exercise  in  which  penmanship  and  tech- 
nique of  language  must  be  duly  subordinated.  \Yhen 
school  authorities  require  that  the  written  composi- 
tion be  a  polished  result,  perfect  in  penmanship,  spell- 
ing and  punctuation,  it  is  wise  to  let  the  children  write 
their  compositions  in  the  rough  with  all  conscious 
interest  on  the  expressional  side  of  their  tasks.  This 
is  the  freest  possible  expression.  In  a  later  period 
each  child  rereads  his  composition,  corrects  it  in  ways 
that  his  calmer  and  more  critical  judgment  may 
dictate  and  then  commits  the  final  effort  to  paper. 
But  we  must  not  fail  to  realize  that  this  is  a  pe- 
riod of  penmanship  rather  than  composition  which 
is  given  as  an  expedient  when  school  regulations 
place  undue  emphasis  on  form  rather  than  on  con- 
tent. 

Children's  compositions  should  be  kept  within  rea- 
sonable limits.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  years,  they 
should  not  extend  beyond  one  and  one-quarter  pages 
of  the  regular  six-by-nine  paper  usually  used  in  the 
schools ;  in  the  last  two  years  the  maximum  should  be 
about  one  and  one-half  pages.  Long  and  discursive 
exercises  have  serious  limitations.  They  tend  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  errors,  to  make  difficult  the  reg- 
ular correction  of  composition  and  to  produce  extreme 
carelessness.  Few  children  are  capable  of  maintain- 

118 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

ing  a  uniformly  high  standard  of  efficiency  in  a  long 
effort. 

But  little  need  be  said  of  the  teacher's  supervisory 
rather  than  instructional  function  in  this  period,  if 
composition  is  taught  by  a  group  system  which  uses 
the  same  method,  and  sets  the  same  pace,  for  only 
those  children  who  are  of  like  ability,  and  which  tries 
to  raise  the  language  level  of  each  child  by  meeting 
personal  needs  and  individual  weaknesses.  The  group 
method  would  continue  the  instructional  task  of  the 
teacher  by  keeping  one  set  of  pupils  busy  writing  while 
the  other  would  be  receiving  its  oral  drill  and 
explanations. 

THE   PERIOD    OF    CORRECTION 

Correction  of  written  work  in  its  fullest  and 
ugliest  sense  is  one  of  the  banes  of  the  teacher's  life. 
There  is  so  much  of  it  that  it  is  completely  over- 
whelming. The  results  are  most  discouraging  for  the 
round  of  irritating  errors  appears  and  reappears  de- 
spite the  untold  drudgery  of  constant  correction.  The 
vital  problem  in  correction  of  written  work  is  hence 
twofold:  (i)  how  to  reduce  the  onerousness  of  the 
burden,  and  (2)  how  to  make  the  work  more  telling 
and  productive  of  greater  results.  These  two  pressing 
needs  must  be  met  by  a  sound  method. 

Objects  of  Correction. — But  before  we  attempt  to  in- 
dicate a  method  we  must  formulate  definitely  the 
reasons  for  correcting  class  work.  Teachers  are  re- 
quired to  go  through  the  tedium  of  correction,  first, 
because  there  is  the  need  of  acquainting  the  child  with 

119 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

his  error  and  the  cause  of  it  so  that  he  will  be  able  to 
correct  the  incorrect  form  on  his  own  initiative.  Sec- 
ondly, it  is  hoped  that  by  dint  of  repetition  teachers 
will  inculcate  in  each  child  a  habit  of  self-criticism  so 
that  he  will  examine  critically  all  that  he  writes  and 
change  it  in  accordance  with  his  better  judgment  and 
in  the  light  of  what  his  language  lessons  teach  him. 

The  Time  for  Correction. — Much  ado  is  often  made 
about  the  question,  "When  shall  we  correct  ?"  Any 
answer  will  suffice,  for  the  question  is  more  or  less 
useless.  Let  the  teacher  warn  the  children  against 
possible  errors  if  they  can  be  anticipated  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  On  the  other  hand,  the  correc- 
tions may  be  made  during  the  writing  of  the  compo- 
sitions, if  we  feel  certain  that  this  interference  will 
not  curb  the  expressional  tendencies  of  the  children. 
From  the  very  nature  of  the  case  we  can  readily  real- 
ize that  the  bulk  of  the  corrections  must  be  made  after 
the  compositions  have  been  written.  But  at  all  times 
we  must  bear  one  important  caution  in  mind,  viz.,  that 
the  corrections  must  never  become  too  minute,  lest 
children  become  ultra  self-conscious.  With  their  limi- 
tations constantly  confronting  them,  they  fear  to  write 
as  freely,  as  fully  and  as  enthusiastically  as  they  feel 
about  their  subject  and  the  result  lacks  the  life  and  the 
zest  that  characterize  good  compositions. 

Incorrect  Method. — Before  suggesting  a  method  of 
correcting  written  work  we  must  note,  in  passing,  cer- 
tain very  common  though  incorrect  procedures  which 
must  be  avoided,  for  they  defeat  the  twofold  object 
that  governs  all  correction.  One  of  these  is  the 

120 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

method  pursued  by  teachers  who  have  too  strong  a 
sense  of  responsibility  and  are  therefore  prompted  to 
do  too  much  for  their  pupils.  The  compositions  are 
taken  home,  read  by  the  teachers  and  with  the  aid  of 
pen  and  red  ink,  the  children's  efforts  are  slashed 
most  ruthlessly  and  the  correct  forms  indicated.  In 
the  next  period  the  child  receives  his  composition — a 
veritable  labyrinth  of  red  lines.  For  example,  king 
Edward  has  a  line  under  the  small  k  with  a  capital 
above  it  and  a  small  "c"  underneath.  The  child  looks 
up  at  a  complex  chart  of  queer  symbols  and  learns 
that  the  "c"  advises  him  to  make  a  capital.  The  word 
akward  is  underlined  and  marked  "sp."  The  chart 
tells  him  that  he  has  made  a  mistake  in  spelling.  If 
he  has  no  dictionary,  he  asks  the  teacher  for  the  cor- 
rect form.  The  next  sentence  has  a  two-legged  "p" 
with  its  face  turned  the  wrong  way  or  a  large  "s" 
which  indicates  where  to  begin  a  new  sentence.  The 
mystic  chart  tells  him  that  he  has  offended  by  vio- 
lating paragraph  unity  or  sentence  structure.  A  new 
sheet  of  paper  is. now  given  him  and  the  child  begins 
to  transcribe  his  composition.  He  carries  out  the  red 
ink  warnings,  makes  the  new  paragraph  or  the  sen- 
tence, writes  king  with  a  capital,  awkward  with  two 
"w's"  in  the  right  places;  never  questions  the  "why" 
or  the  "wherefore"  for  he  has  full  confidence  in  the 
teacher.  What  are  the  inevitable  results?  The  next 
composition  finds  the  same  errors  of  paragraph  unity 
and  sentence  structure.  Queen  'Elizabeth  is  written 
queen  Elizabeth,  etc.  Because  the  child  did  not  learn 
the  cause  of  his  errors,  he  is  as  helpless  as  heretofore. 

121 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

He  obeys  slavishly  the  arbitrary  dictates  of  the  red 
ink,  and  does  not  acquire  habits  of  self-correction.  In 
the  light  of  the  two  aims  that  were  set  up  as  stand- 
ards, this  method  fails  woefully  despite  the  conscien- 
tious effort  and  the  weary  drudgery  of  the  teacher. 

The  Method  of  Correcting  Written  Work. — A  peda- 
gogical method  of  correcting  written  work  requires 
that  the  teacher  read  the  compositions  but  refrain  from 
putting  any  marks  of  correction  on  them.  While  the 
children  are  writing,  the  teacher  can  read  their  com- 
positions over  their  shoulders  and  make  note  of  such 
general  errors  or  class  mistakes  as  merit  class  study 
and  attention.  In  this  way  a  number  of  the  composi- 
tions are  read.  The  remaining  ones  are  read  after 
class  hours,  and  the  common  errors  noted  in  the 
teacher's  book.  It  is  imperative  that  the  teacher  re- 
frain from  marking  them.  The  time  now  spent  is  in- 
significant in  comparison  with  the  old  method.  These 
typical  errors  are  now  embodied  in  a  composition  and 
the  result  is  put  on  the  board  to  be  taken  up  in  the 
period  for  correction.  The  children  are  made  to  un- 
derstand that  the  faulty  work  on  the  board  is  a  com- 
posite of  their  common  errors. 

Elicit  the  mistakes  from  the  pupils,  then  through 
questions  and  suggestions  lead  them  to  see  the  reason 
that  explains  why  the  form  is  wrong.  The  first  in- 
accurate sentence  on  the  board  is  "Jonn>  witn  m's  dog, 
are  in  the  room."  The  teacher  appeals  to  their 
knowledge  of  grammar,  and  asks  such  questions  as 
'What  is  the  subject?  the  predicate?  the  rule  of  agree- 
ment? What  are  the  modifiers?"  If  for  some  reason, 

122 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

answers  to  these  cannot  be  obtained  from  the  chil- 
dren, a  direct  explanation  is  given  and  the  reason  for 
the  inaccuracy  is  stated  by  the  teacher.  The  children 
are  then  called  upon  for  the  correction  of  the  sentence. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  teacher  offer  the 
correct  form,  for  the  aim  of  the  lesson  and  the  test  of 
comprehension  are  both  defeated.  In  this  way  each 
general  error  on  the  board  is  taken  up,  discussed,  and 
corrected  by  the  pupils.  When  this  work  is  completed, 
the  children  read  their  own  compositions  with  great 
care  and  look  for  such  typical  errors,  which  they  un- 
derline and  correct. 

In  this  work  a  few  minor  cautions  are  necessary: 
(i)  The  corrections  on  compositions  written  in  ink 
should  be  made  with  a  different  colored  ink  or  lead 
pencil,  for  if  the  same  colored  ink  is  used,  the  chil- 
dren's minds  become  occupied  with  the  problem  of 
how  to  correct  surreptitiously;  an  "e"  is  filled  up  and 
dotted  to  become  an  "i,"  a  small  "s"  has  its  head  en- 
larged to  become  a  capital  letter,  and  the  like — prac- 
tices which  take  attention  away  from  the  main  issue, 
the  comprehension  of  the  cause  of  error  and  the  in- 
terest in  self-correction.  (2)  Let  the  children  under- 
line each  error  with  ruler  and  pencil,  and  refrain  from 
indicating  by  a  confusion  of  symbols  what  literary 
sin  they  have  committed.  These  symbols  cannot  an- 
ticipate every  possible  error  that  children  in  their  ig- 
norance can  perpetrate.  The  period  is  often  wasted 
with  questions  of  the  type,  "I  put  in  double  quotation 
marks  where  I  should  have  had  single  ones ;  how  shall 
I  mark  it?"  etc.  A  line  under  each  error  ought  to 

123 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

suffice.  (3)  It  is  important  that  children  look  for  only 
one  or  two  typical  errors  at  a  time.  To  ask  them  to 
read  their  compositions  and  correct  in  the  one  reading 
all  their  errors  is  too  big  a  task  for  them.  In  the  re- 
sulting diffusion  of  attention,  they  overlook  flagrant 
mistakes  and  neglect  important  corrections.  (4)  We 
must  stimulate  them  to  set  to  this  task  with  spirit  and 
avidity.  They  naturally  fear  to  bring  out  all  their 
errors  prominently.  Hence  we  must  put  a  premium  on 
correction.  Let  them  feel  that  all  errors  corrected  are 
excused;  all  uncorrected,  count  doubly  against  them. 
In  this  way  we  reduce  the  teacher's  burden,  lead  the 
children  to  see  their  errors  and  note  the  cause,  and 
to  develop  habits  of  self-criticism. 

Seeming  Limitations  of  the  Method. — But  it  may  be 
argued  that  there  are  serious  limitations  to  this  meth- 
od. To  begin  with,  not  all  errors  will  be  corrected. 
This  imputation  is  true,  but  it  is  better  to  have  some 
of  the  errors  corrected  and  feel  that  an  effective  effort 
has  been  made  to  undermine  them  than  to  correct  them 
all  only  to  be  chagrined  by  their  unwelcome  reappear- 
ance in  the  next  composition  period.  A  second  criti- 
cism that  can  in  all  justice  be  urged  is  that  in  such  a 
method  all  typical  errors  will  be  eliminated  and  per- 
haps eradicated,  but  how  will  those  errors  that  are.  pe- 
culiar and  personal  to  each  child  be  brought  out  and 
corrected?  To  reach  the  child's  personal  limitations 
and  incorrect  forms,  this  method  must  be  supple- 
mented in  a  number  of  ways.  Let  us  consider  them. 

Eliminating  Individual  Errors:  i.  Each  Composi- 
tion to  be  Read  by  a  Critic. — The  first  means  that  we 

124 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

have  of  undermining  those  peculiar  errors  that  are 
made  by  each  child  is  to  arrange  to  have  each  com- 
position read  by  a  critic.  We  have  all  seen  evidences 
of  the  children's  desire  to  read  one  another's  compo- 
sitions. Exchanges  are  constantly  going  on  behind 
the  teacher's  back  if  such  a  practice  is  foolishly  for- 
bidden. Such  a  desire  can  be  utilized  for  educational 
ends.  Just  as  soon  as  the  teacher  knows  her  pupils 
she  can  group  them  by  two's  and  have  each  child  act 
as  an  assigned  critic  of  his  classmate.  Thus,  a  child 
who  writes  good  compositions  is  made  the  critic  of 
one  whose  work  is  below  grade.  The  former  can  re- 
ceive little  constructive  criticism  from  any  of  his  class- 
mates; the  latter  can  gather  a  great  deal  of  helpful 
advice  from  the  assigned  critic.  The  teacher  must 
direct  the  critics'  efforts  along  certain  lines  by  hang- 
ing a  large  cardboard  in  some  conspicuous  place,  con- 
taining these  directions: 


CRITICS  LOOK  FOR  : 

1.  Paragraph  Unity  and  Structure. 

2.  Sentences — 

(a)  Capitalization. 

(b)  Subject  and  Predicate. 

(c)  "and"  habit. 

3.  Punctuation,  Spelling,  Capitalization. 


Each  critic  reads  the  composition  three  times,  each 
time  for  one  specific  error.  To  add  to  the  serious- 
ness and  the  dignity  of  the  task,  each  critic  must  sign 

125 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

his  name  and  pin  his  criticisms  to  the  original  compo- 
sition. In  marking  compositions,  the  teacher  should 
rate  the  critic  as  well  as  the  writer  of  the  composition. 
The  compositions  are  then  returned  and  each  child 
reads  the  critic's  suggestions,  carrying  out  such  direc- 
tions as  appeal  to  him,  and  verifying  the  doubtful  ones 
by  reference  to  textbook  or  to  the  teacher.  Where 
class  discipline  is  properly  organized,  children  are  al- 
lowed to  sit  together,  to  discuss  their  compositions, 
and  decide  on  the  final  corrections.  However,  those 
whose  ideas  of  discipline  call  for  deathlike  stillness, 
with  a  repressive  silence  and  military  responses,  may 
shrink  from  such  a  suggestion.  In  this  form  of  cor- 
rection, children  take  pride  in  offering  good  correc- 
tions and  in  bringing  compositions  to  their  critics  that 
have  as  few  mistakes  as  possible ;  they  are  at  all  times 
kept  active  learning  the  art  of  self-criticism. 

2.  Compositions  Criticized  by  the  Class. — A  sec- 
ond supplementary  device  to  detect  personal  errors  and 
shortcomings  is  the  common  exercise  of  having  the 
class  criticize  the  compositions  of  individuals.  To 
elicit  criticism  that  is  direct  and  pointed,  the  children 
should  be  trained  to  listen  intelligently  by  having  a 
chart  similar  to  the  one  mentioned  before  in  front  of 
the  class,  and  requiring  "Group  I"  to  listen  for  para- 
graph unity  and  sentence  structure,  "Group  II"  for 
grammatical  correctness,  and  "Group  III"  for  begin- 
nings, endings,  kind  of  facts,  etc.  In  this  way  much 
of  the  stupid  criticism  that  is  often  made  by  children 
can  be  eliminated.  The  class  should  be  encouraged  to 
point  out  commendable  efforts  so  that  the  child  who 

126 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

reads  his  composition  does  not  feel  that  he  is  running 
the  gantlet  of  adverse  criticism.  It  is  also  advisable 
to  allow  a  child  to  answer  his  critics  and  to  defend  his 
stand  if  he  is  not  willing  to  accept  the  criticisms  that 
are  too  freely  offered  by  the  thoughtless. 

3.  Personal  Correction  and  Criticism  by  the 
Teacher. — A  third  supplementary  aid  to  help  each 
child  overcome  his  own  personal  peculiarities  is  to 
have  the  teacher  give  his  personal  attention  to  each 
composition.  The  task  is  not  only  colossal,  but  when 
carried  out  in  the  Usual  manner  is,  as  we  have  seen, 
devoid  of  results.  Hence  the  teacher  should  take  only 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  whole  set  of  composi- 
tions each  week,  the  following  week  the  second  third 
or  the  second  quarter,  etc.,  until  every  member  of  the 
class  has  received  the  benefit  of  the  teacher's  criticism. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  each  composition 
must  be  read  with  the  child,  the  error  pointed  out,  and 
its  cause  explained,  but  the  pupil  himself  must  indi- 
cate the  correct  form.  No  mark  is  made  on  the  com- 
position that  the  child  does  not  personally  dictate. 
One-third  or  one-fourth  of  a  large  class  would  rarely 
give  a  teacher  more  than  twelve  or  fourteen  composi- 
tions a  week.  The  children  can  meet  the  teacher  in 
personal  conference  before  school  hours,  during  study 
periods,  or  for  a  few  moments  after  sessions.  In  this 
way  the  teacher  is  not  overwhelmed  by  a  task  that 
saps  energy  and  vitality,  the  children  learn  the  cause 
of  their  errors,  habits  of  self -correction  are  engen- 
dered, and  positive  and  effective  steps  are  taken  to  im- 
prove standards  of  expression. 

127 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

How  Shall  the  Class  Work  Be  Kept? — When  the  work 
is  completed,  how  shall  it  be  kept?  Surely  not 
in  the  altogether  too  prevalent  form  in  which  papers 
of  the  whole  class  are  collected,  fastened  tight, 
adorned  with  ribbons  and  elaborate  title  pages,  and 
hidden  in  the  dark  recesses  of  a  closet  to  await  the  criti- 
cal eye  of  principal  or  superintendent.  These  compo- 
sitions must  be  kept  in  individual  envelopes  or  in  note- 
books so  that  each  child  has  a  cumulative  result.  At  a 
moment's  notice  the  teacher  must  be  able  to  see  a  child's 
progress  or  retrogression.  The  children  like  this  meth- 
od better,  for  the  pride  of  ownership  and  evidences  of 
tasks  accomplished  are  always  sources  of  keen  pleas- 
ure. 

The  Kewriting  of  Corrected  Compositions. — The  final 
consideration  in  the  matter  of  correcting  compositions 
is  the  problem  of  rewriting  compositions.  Not  many 
years  ago,  the  unanimous  verdict  was,  "All  composi- 
tions must  be  rewritten."  To-day  the  camp  is  divided. 
Many  insist  that  compositions  should  never  be  rewrit- 
ten. Their  many  arguments,  when  summed  up,  re- 
duce themselves  to  the  following:  (i)  Time  is  lav- 
ishly spent  in  an  exercise  that  is  a  matter  of  penman- 
ship rather  than  of  composition.  (2)  The  period  is 
dull  since  it  is  at  best  a  stupid  repetition,  a  mechanical 
transcription.  (3)  Such  lessons  have  a  deadening  ef- 
fect upon  future  compositions  since  no  joy  is  experi- 
enced in  this  kind  of  expression. 

The  opponents  insist  on  rewriting,  for  they  argue 
that  in  real  life  the  first  draft  is  generally  not  the 
final  one.  We  rewrite  as  a  result  of  self-criticism  of 

128 


THE  CORRECTION  OF  WRITTEN  COMPOSITIONS 

the  first  effort.  Second,  the  habit  to  polish,  to  modify, 
and  to  correct  an  initial  effort  is  well  worth  acquiring. 
Third,  the  final  rewritten  form  leaves  a  good  impres- 
sion upon  the  child's  mind. 

Each  side  has  legitimate  claims  and  a  pedagogical 
basis  but  nevertheless  suffers  from  the  excesses  of  an 
extreme  point  of  view.  A  moderate  policy  counsels 
that  compositions  should  never  be  rewritten  for  the 
sake  of  improved  penmanship  nor  at  regular  periods, 
like  once  a  fortnight  or  once  a  week.  All  rewriting 
should  spring  from  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  children 
to  have  an  opportunity  to  improve  an  unsuccessful 
first  attempt.  For  purposes  of  illustration  we  may 
assume  that  a  composition  was  written  and  the  model 
was  studied  afterward  for  comparison  and  correction. 
The  children  now  realize  how  far  from  the  mark  they 
hit,  how  much  better  they  could  do  if  a  second  trial 
were  allowed  them.  If  this  is  the  feeling  that  pre- 
vails, the  children  should  be  permitted  to  rewrite  their 
unsuccessful  compositions.  This  second  exercise  is 
alive  and  spirited,  for  it  is  actuated  by  strong  motive 
power  and  earnest  conviction. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  Chapter  VIII. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
HOW  TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION  EXERCISES 

Introduction. — The  concluding  chapter  on  the  teach- 
ing of  composition  asks  how  life  and  enthusiasm  can 
be  introduced  into  the  varied  expressional  lessons  of 
the  elementary  school,  because  children  generally  feel 
that  these  are  routine  drills,  devoid  of  all  interest  and 
giving  no  pleasure.  They  experience  little  exhilara- 
tion but  much  fatiguing  effort  because  teachers  neg- 
lect the  basic  tenet  that  was  laid  down  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  discussion,  viz.,  "The  play  spirit  must 
characterize  the  art  of  composition,  for  all  art  was 
conceived  in  a  play  spirit."  We  must  now  turn  to  a 
series  of  miscellaneous  suggestions  that  seek  to  vital- 
ize composition  and  infuse  into  it  this  play  spirit  of 
art. 

1.  Greater  Emphasis  on  Letters. — Compositions  in 
essay  form  usually  lack  the  naturalness  of  letters ;  they 
are  as  stiff  and  stilted  as  our  own  high-school  and  col- 
lege essays  used  to  be.  The  reason,  in  the  main,  seems 
to  be  that  the  child  sees  no  use  for  the  composition 
form  just  as  we  saw  no  use  and  felt  no  need  for  the 
essays  imposed  upon  us.  But  a  letter  stands  out  as  a 
form  of  communication  that  is  essentially  useful,  prac- 
tical, and  personal;  these  attributes  give  it  spirit  and 

130 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

interest.  An  examination  of  the  term's  work  in  ele- 
mentary classes  reveals  a  surprising  preponderance  of 
the  essay  form.  It  is  evident  that  the  usual  ratio  of 
three  essays  to  one  letter  each  school  month  must  be 
changed  to  at  least  two  letters  and  two  essays. 

2.  The  Correspondence  Should  Treat  of  Actual  Affairs 
of  Real  Life. — If  letter  forms  are  to  be  emphasized,  we 
must  eliminate  at  once  such  letters  as  are  letters  in 
form  only  and  essays  in  spirit.  One  may  write  to  a 
cousin,  as  is  so  often  done  in  the  classroom,  about 
"How  people  live  in  China,"  or  "How  the  Battle  of 
Bunker  Hill  was  fought,"  and  use  the  proper  form, 
arrangement,  superscription,  salutation,  etc.,  but  he 
is,  nevertheless,  sending  an  essay,  not  a  letter.  A 
recent  publication  much  used  by  teachers  suggests  the 
following  "Subjects  for  Letters" :  "Imagine  you  live  in 
Honolulu;  write  to  a  brother  telling  of  the  people, 
their  life,  occupations,  etc."  "Write  to  your  uncle  on 
what  you  think  of  a  book."  "You  just  returned  from 
a  visit  to  your  cousin  in  New  Orleans ;  write  him  about 
the  return  trip."  "Write  a  letter  describing  your  im- 
aginary visit  to  the  South."  "Write  a  letter  telling 
how  you  spent  your  last  vacation."  "Write  a  letter 
telling  your  aims  in  life."  These  are  a  few  of  numer- 
ous suggestions,  all  violating  our  cardinal  dictum 
which  holds  that  a  letter  is  a  personal  expression  on 
a  personal  theme  rather  than  a  general  expression  or 
an  artificial  literary  effusion. 

Select  titles  like  the  following :  "Letter  complaining 
that  inferior  goods  were  sent  by  a  department  store, 
and  the  answer";  "Letter  of  application,  and  the  an- 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

swers:  (a)  acceptance,  (b)  rejection";  "Letter  of 
apology  for  a  business  error" ;  "Letter  of  introduc- 
tion"; "Letter  asking  for  an  adyertisement  for  the 
school  paper";  "Letter  challenging  another  class  to 
a  contest";  "Letter  to  a  hotel  asking  for  summer 
rates" ;  "Letter  to  a  summer  camp  asking  for  terms" ; 
"Letter  to  the  Association  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals  asking  that  the  authorities  send 
for  a  homeless  cat";  "Letter  to  the  Board  of  Health 
complaining  of  some  source  of  contagion,"  etc.  In  all 
cases  the  child  should  be  required  to  write  the  answers 
also.  Because  these  relations  and  affairs  necessitate 
correspondence  in  actual  life,  they  must  be  the  topics 
for  the  letters  in  the  schoolroom. 

3.  The  Correspondence  Itself  Should  Be  Real. — Not 
only  should  the  theme  of  the  letters  reflect  real  life  and 
human  relations,  but  the  form  of  the  correspondence 
should  be  made  as  actual  as  possible.  In  the  workaday 
world  one  writes  because  he  is  actuated  by  two  condi- 
tions: (i)  He  has  something  to  say,  and  (2)  he  has 
someone  to  whom  to  say  it.  In  school,  children  usual- 
ly write  because  they  must  say  something;  what  they 
say  is  stored  in  the  teacher's  desk  in  neat  packages.  It 
is  evident  that  classroom  correspondence  must  be  ac- 
tualized by  having  it  addressed  to  a  real  person  who 
will  read  and  answer  it.  The  letter  asking  for  an  ad- 
vertisement in  the  school  paper  should  be  addressed 
to  one's  permanent  critic,  who  reads  it  and  answers  it. 
The  exchange  of  letters  actually  takes  place.  This 
means  life  and  spirit,  for  the  letter  is  real,  it  bears  a 
living  message,  and  brings  the  coveted  answer.  Every 

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HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

opportunity  should  be  seized  upon  to  make  classroom 
correspondence  real  and  urgent.  Children  should  write 
letters  to  their  teachers  when  they  have  a  complaint  to 
register  or  when  they  seek  advice.  If  a  member  of  the 
class  is  sick,  or  is  at  home  because  he  has  lost  a  mem- 
ber of  his  family,  notes  of  sympathy  should  be  writ- 
ten and  the  best  ones  sent.  If  teachers  keep  watching 
for  such  opportunities,  they  will  find  innumerable  ones 
arising  in  the  course  of  ordinary  routine  during  the 
term. 

4.  The  Class  Journal  with  Its  Board  of  Editors  Elected 
or  Selected. — A  class  journal  can  be  organized  in  the 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years.  A  board  of  editors 
of  three  or  five  is  appointed  by  the  teacher  or  elected 
by  the  children.  This  board  is  directed  by  the  teacher 
and  brings  out  an  issue  at  regular  intervals  of  about  a 
foftnight.  The  journal  is  of  simple  construction  and 
can  be  mimeographed  so  that  each  member  of  the  class 
receives  his  personal  copy.  The  editors  read  each 
week's  compositions  and  select  the  best  three  or  four 
for  reproduction  in  the  class  journal.  They  post  no- 
tices on  the  class  bulletin  boards  calling  for  original 
stories,  anecdotes,  timely  clippings,  appropriate  per- 
sonals, and  the  like.  They  write  up  interesting  class- 
room incidents,  summarize  school  athletics,  give  the 
news  of  the  class  teams,  hold  contests  for  the  best 
short  story — in  a  word,  contribute  to  the  life  and  spirit 
of  the  class. 

Such  a  journal  can  be  made  an  agent  of  untold 
value.  There  are  a  number  of  pupils  in  each  class  who 
like  to  read,  who  do  read,  whose  imagination  is  rich 

133 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

with  interesting  inventions  but  who  have  no  motive 
and  no  reason  for  giving-  expression  to  these  through 
writing.  The  journal  draws  them  out  and  produces 
surprises  for  the  teacher.  It  is  also  a  means  of  re- 
vealing the  true  natures  of  some  children  to  their 
teachers.  Because  a  child  is  not  proficient  in  the  work 
of  the  grade,  he  is  judged  stupid.  But  his  contribu- 
tions to  the  class  journal  may  reveal  a  sense  of  humor, 
an  originality,  a  fund  of  common-sense,  and  practical 
judgment  which  will  stand  him  in  good  stead  in  later 
years.  These  revelations  offer  most  agreeable  sur- 
prises. Such  a  journal  will  also  make  for  greater 
class  solidarity;  it  creates  good  class  spirit,  acts  as  a 
wholesome  spur  toward  better  compositions,  for  chil- 
dren strive  to  be  selected  for  the  editorial  board  and 
to  have  their  compositions  reprinted  in  the  issues  of 
the  paper. 

5.  TJse  Debatable  Topics. — Debatable  topics  should 
be  used  with  greater  frequency,  for  they  meet  with 
much  favor  among  the  children.  They  are  popular 
because — if  well  chosen — they  give  the  child  an  oppor- 
tunity to  express  his  personal  preference.  Hence  we 
must  be  sure  to  select  a  topic  that  reflects  the  child's 
life  and  desires,  his  point  of  view,  his  yearnings.  The 
following  list  of  topics  urged  in  a  standard  book  much 
used  in  elementary  grades  cannot  receive  unqualified 
indorsement :  "Physical  Training  Should  Be  Compul- 
sory in  Public  Schools,"  "Woman  Suffrage,"  "The 
Civil-Service  System  Should  Be  Abolished,"  "The 
Term  of  the  Supreme  Court  Judge  Should  Be  Lim- 
ited," "Canada  Should  Be  Annexed  to  the  United 

134 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

States."  A  more  appropriate  series  of  topics  would 
be:  "Resolved,  That  We  Have  a  School  Paper"; 
"Resolved,  That  We  Have  a  School  City" ;  "Resolved, 
That  the  Girls  Should  Vote  in  the  School  City" ;  "Re- 
solved, That  Examinations  Be  Abolished" ;  "Resolved, 
That  John  Brown  Was  Not  Justified  in  His  Actions" ; 
"Resolved,  That  the  Fireman  Is  More  Useful  than  the 
Policeman,  or  the  Nurse  than  the  Teacher,"  etc. 

The  children  should  be  allowed  to  take  sides;  an 
advocate  of  the  negative  should  be  declared  a  partner 
of  a  sponsor  for  the  affirmative,  and  should  be  re- 
quired to  exchange  his  composition  with  him.  The 
succeeding  composition  lesson  should  continue  the 
same  subject  so  that  each  child  has  an  opportunity  to 
answer  his  opponent.  The  results^  when  the  topic  is 
appropriately  chosen,  are  most  satisfactory  because  the 
two  governing  motives  which  prompt  natural  expres- 
sion are  present,  viz.,  the  children  have  something  to 
say  and  they  are  addressing  their  views  to  some  defi- 
nite person  who  will  read  them.  Enthusiasm  and 
pleasure  are  guaranteed  to  the  children  in  such  work. 

6.  Aim  at  Variety  of  Form  and  Content. — An  exam- 
ination of  a  term's  compositions  usually  reveals  one 
marked  limitation — there  is  woeful  lack  of  variety  of 
form  and  content  in  them.  If  one  were  to  check  up 
the  titles  of  these  compositions,  he  would  find  that 
biographies  lead  by  a  large  margin.  When  in  doubt 
as  to  a  subject,  a  teacher  usually  selects  a  character 
about  whom  the  children  have  read  in  history  or  litera- 
ture and  tries  to  make  him  yield  the  inspiration  for 
the  week's  composition.  These  biographies  are  simple 

135 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

to  write,  for  these  persons  were  all  born,  lived  their 
eventful  lives,  and  then  died,  thus  affording  an  obvi- 
ous sequence  and  a  stereotyped  organization.  There  is 
no  reason  why  we  should  lack  variety  of  subject-mat- 
ter if  we  consider  the  many  possibilities  that  are  at 
hand. 

The  outline  here  given  suggests  types  of  composi- 
tions appropriate  for  the  range  of  grades  in  the  ele- 
mentary school : 

I.     Narration — 

.  fa.  Story  Read  or  Told 
i.     Reproduction  of  •{ ,     T       '     ,  ,,r.  . 

[b.  Incident  \vitnessed 

a.  Personal  Anecdote, 
Humorous 

b.  Serious  Story, 


2.     Imaginative  Incident 


Result  of  Child's 
Imagination 

The  following  compositions  are  types  of  imag- 
inative incidents  taken  from  the  work  of  school 
children.  They  are  quoted  not  because  of  unusual 
merit  but  rather  because  they  are  typical  of  the  humor 
and  the  tragedy  that  most  children  feel  and  can  ex- 
press. 

THE  EXPECTED  GUEST 

On  Monday  afternoon  my  uncle  from  Boston  was  ex- 
pected to  pay  us  a  visit.  I  had  never  seen  him,  because  he 
had  not  visited  us  for  fifteen  years.  We  occupied  a  flat  in 
the  house  situated  in  the  upper  part  of  Manhattan,  and 
mother  and  I  were  alone. 

At  about  two  o'clock  the  bell  rang  and  I  answered  the 

136 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

door.  A  man  entered  and  inquired  if  Mrs.  Green  was  at 
home.  I  replied,  very  politely,  "Yes,  sir;  walk  right  into 
the  parlor  and  sit  down.  Mother  will  be  in  in  a  minute." 

Then  going  to  the  kitchen  where  my  mother  was,  I  said 
to  her,  "Mother,  uncle  is  in  the  parlor."  So  she  slipped  off 
her  apron  and  went  in.  As  she  came  near  the  door  the 
man  arose  and  said,  "Madam,  I  would  like  you  to  try  a  new 
brand  of  coffee  which  I  am  advertising,  and  if  you  like  I 
will  leave  a  sample  with  you  and  call  to-morrow  for  your 
order."  My  mother  did  not  feel  like  ordering  coffee  that 
day  because  she  was  sadly  disappointed.  But  we  had  a  good 
laugh,  and  about  nine  o'clock  that  evening  my  uncle  arrived. 

A  DARING  RESCUE 

On  the  evening  of  November  22nd  I  was  seated  in  my 
father's  store  writing  a  composition,  when  I  was  disturbed 
by  a  great  hullabaloo  outside.  Whenever  I  am  occupied  in 
this  way  the  least  disturbance  irritates  me.  So,  throwing 
aside  my  work,  I  ran  to  the  door  to  find  out  the  cause  of  the 
disturbance. 

I  was  horror  stricken  at  the  sight  which  met  my  gaze. 
The  whole  street  was  lighted  up  with  a  red  glow.  Glancing 
up  at  a  house  nearby,  I  saw  flames  belching  forth  from  a 
first-story  window.  A  great  crowd  of  furious  people  had 
been  attracted  to  the  spot  and  the  street  was  crowded.  Some 
daring  boys  had  climbed  up  the  fire-escape  and  one  of  them 
had  muffled  a  blanket  around  his  face  and  had  gone  into  the 
burning  flat.  He  immediately  withdrew  and  in  his  hand  he 
clutched  a  chair.  He  was  just  giving  it  a  final  tug  when  he 
was  overcome  by  the  pungent  smoke.  He  hurled  the  chair 
back  and  ran  down  into  the  street,  closely  followed  by  the 
other  boys. 

The  sea  of  expectant  faces  was  suddenly  turned  upward. 
For  on  the  top  floor,  the  figure  of  a  girl  was  seen  standing 
on  the  window-sill  ready  to  jump.  The  flames  could  never 
have  reached  that  height,  but  the  girl  had  probably  been 

137 


THE    TEACHING    OF    ENGLISH 

crazed  by  fear,  and  had  acted  upon  the  impulse  of  the  mo- 
ment. "Would  nobody  stop  her?"  I  kept  repeating  to  myself. 
To  jump  would  be  fatal.  One  of  the  men  in  the  crowd  had 
courage  enough  to  climb  swiftly  up  the  fire-escapes.  He 
reached  her  just  in  the  nick  of  time.  Bidding  her  be  brave, 
he  gripped  her  around  the  waist  and  cautiously  climbed 
along  the  narrow  ledge  to  the  opposite  window,  where  the 
fire-escape  was  situated.  Their  forms  were  plainly  silhou- 
etted against  the  white  wall  of  the  building.  Every  neck  in 
the  crowd  was  craned  upward.  The  girl  had  now  collapsed 
and  the  burden  was  entirely  upon  the  man.  He  descended 
slowly,  oh,  so  slowly,  until  he  reached  the  first  floor  where 
the  flames  were  snarling,  hissing,  and  crackling  from  the 
window.  He  paused  a  moment!  Would  he  falter  after 
having  gone  so  far?  Gathering  all  his  remaining  strength 
in  one  last  effort,  he  made  a  desperate  spurt  into  the  very 
heart  of  the  flames,  and  just  when  his  strength  was  desert- 
ing him  a  fireman  snatched  the  girl  from  his  now  feeble 
arms  and  lowered  her  down  to  a  waiting  comrade  below. 
For  meanwhile  the  firemen  had  arrived.  The  girl  and  her 
rescuer  were  badly  scorched  and  they  were  both  carried 
to  a  neighboring  drug  store. 

At  this  stage  the  fire  was  at  its  height.  The  flames  had 
burst  through  the  ceiling  into  the  flat  above.  The  owner 
of  the  burning  flat,  who  occupied  a  store  directly  below  it, 
was  crying  piteously,  for,  said  he,  "My  wife  and  baby  are 
above.'*  With  difficulty  he  was  assured  that  they  were  safe. 
Meanwhile  the  firemen  were  exerting  every  effort  and  soon 
had  the  fire  under  control. 

Not  a  pin  was  saved  from  the  ruins  after  the  fire.  But 
what  is  of  more  importance  no  lives  were  lost.  The  follow- 
ing day  the  papers  had  a  thrilling  account  of  how  "A  driver 
at  the  risk  of  his  life  saves  a  girl  of  eighteen." 

II.  Description. — A  descriptive  composition  may 
vary  considerably  so  that  the  child  never  realizes  that 

138 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

he  is  writing  the  same  literary  form,  for  it  may  be  a 
description  of  a  place,  of  a  person,  or  of  a  thing.  But 
in  all  description  we  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
the  child  is  not  interested  in  writing  a  description 
merely  for  the  sake  of  description,  merely  to  give  to 
someone  a  rich,  detailed  picture  which  he  himself  sees. 
Every  description  that  is  written  in  the  elementary 
school  should  have  either  a  personal  touch  or  a  story 
element  in  it ;  it  must  always  be  a  description  for  some 
definite  purpose;  to  give  the  setting  of  a  story,  a  pic- 
ture of  the  main  character  in  an  incident,  or  the  like. 
A  child's  language  stock  is  too  poor  to  enable  him  to 
indulge  in  description  freely,  and  to  give  a  vivid  im- 
pression of  characteristic  details  merely  through  the 
use  of  rich  color  words  and  suggestive  phrases.  In 
describing  a  person  the  child  must  be  made  to  realize 
that  he  can  give  us  a  picture  of  the  person  by  telling 
what  the  character  does  and  says  as  well  as  by  giving 
an  enumeration  of  the  distinguishing  features.  What 
is  meant  by  having  children  write  description  with 
a  personal  touch  or  a  story  element,  can  perhaps 
best  be  seen  from  an  analysis  of  concrete  illustra- 
tions. 

Illustration  A.  A  boy  is  about  to  start  out  from  a 
country  town  to  try  his  fortune  in  the  city.  De- 
scribe him. 

Illustration  B.      "Der   kleine   Johannes" — Descrip- 
tion of  a  lake.     Its  beauty  and  splendor  tempt 
Johannes  to  row  in  the  boat,  in  violation  of  his 
mother's  commands. 
Illustration  C.     My  Classmate. 

139 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

MY  CLASSMATE 

On  coming  into  the  classroom  every  morning  it  is  a 
habit  of  mine  to  glance  at  a  certain  individual  whose  antics 
are  quite  amusing.  There  are  very  few  characters  in  our 
class  whose  descriptions  would  be  as  interesting  as  that  of 
my  hero's. 

He  is  as  tall  as  the  average  fifteen-year-old  boy.  Per- 
haps not  many  peculiarities  as  to  traits  can  be  seen  unless 
he  is  closely  watched.  He  has  a  kindly  disposition  and  is 
at  peace  with  all.  The  mention  of  black  hair,  dark  brown 
eyes,  prominent  nose  and  rather  thin  features  will  suffice  for 
a  description  of  his  appearance.  One  of  his  chief  character- 
istics is  modesty.  Of  course  he  knows  grammar,  but  when 
he  gets  up  to  recite  he  misses  because  being  so  modest  he  is 
satisfied  that  somebody  else  should  get  the  glory.  Many 
times  in  the  different  rooms  of  the  departmental  section, 
he  can  be  seen  gazing  out  of  the  window,  watching  the 
clouds  as  they  sail  gracefully  by.  I  remember  distinctly  on 
one  occasion,  while  he  was  in  one  of  his  favorite  reveries, 
I  arose  to  read  a  composition  about  a  diamond  necklace 
valued  at  $10,000.  At  the  mention  of  such  an  enormous 
sum  of  money  his  eyes  grew  as  large  as  saucers,  his  mouth 
expanded  to  twice  its  natural  size,  and  his  face  was  aglow 
with  excitement.  So  noticeable  was  this  that  the  teacher  on 
seeing  it  remarked,  "Master  X  has  really  awakened." 

I  might  relate  some  more  very  interesting  incidents  re- 
garding him  but  I  am  afraid  my  narrative  may  become 
tedious.  Hoping  the  one  of  whom  I  write  will  not  in  any 
way  be  offended,  as  I  have  tried  hard  to  say  nothing  that 
would  embarrass  him,  I  will  close  feeling  certain  that  my 
description  has  not  been  in  vain. 

PUPIL  IN  8A  GRADE. 

Illustration  D.    The  Beggar.    Turgenieff :    "Dream 
Tales." 

140 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

THE  BEGGAR 

I  was  walking  along  the  street.  ...  I  was  stopped  by  a 
decrepit  old  beggar. 

Bloodshot,  tearful  eyes,  blue  lips,  coarse  rags,  festering 
wounds.  .  .  .  Oh,  how  hideously  poverty  had  eaten  into 
this  miserable  creature! 

He  held  out  to  me  a  red,  swollen,  filthy  hand.  He 
groaned,  he  mumbled  of  help. 

I  began  feeling  in  all  my  pockets.  ...  No  purse,  no 
watch,  not  even  a  handkerchief.  ...  I  had  taken  nothing 
with  me.  And  the  beggar  was  still  waiting.  .  .  .  And  his 
outstretched  hand  feebly  shook  and  trembled. 

Confused,  abashed,  I  warmly  clasped  the  filthy,  shaking 
hand.  .  .  .  "Don't  be  angry,  brother;  I  have  nothing, 
brother." 

The  beggar  stared  at  me  with  his  bloodshot  eyes.  His 
blue  lips  smiled;  and  he  in  his  turn  gripped  my  chilly 
fingers. 

"What  of  it,  brother  ?"  he  mumbled ;  "thanks  for  this  too. 
That  is  a  gift  too,  brother." 

I  knew  that  I  too  had  received  a  gift  from  my  brother. 

III.  Exposition. — The  next  form  that  composi- 
tion may  take  is  the  expository  one.  But  here,  too,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  in  the  question  of  form  vs. 
content,  form  always  proves — to  the  child — to  be 
less  interesting.  The  teacher  must  make  sure  of  a 
fitting  content,  hence  children  should  not  be  required 
to  write  expository  compositions  merely  for  the  sake 
of  learning  the  technical  requisites  of  literary  exposi- 
tion. There  must  be  a  personal  element,  and  an  in- 
dividual expression  throughout  the  essay.  From  this 
point  of  view,  models  like  the  following  are  poor,  for 

141 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

in  the  final  analysis  they  have  no  reason  for  being  and 
are  expository  merely  for  the  sake  of  expounding. 

How  TO  PLAY  PING-PONG 

Ping-pong  is  a  game  played  by  men,  women  and  children. 
A  light,  hollow  ball,  a  pair  of  rackets,  a  net  and  a  table  are 
needed.  Boys  often  use  small  boards  and  a  cloth  stretched 
across  a  table,  but  grown-up  people  use  regulation  tables  and 
rackets. 

The  game  is  like  tennis.  Since  it  is  played  on  a  table, 
it  is  often  called  table-tennis.  The  first  player  serves  the 
ball.  If  he  fails  to  "place"  it  properly,  the  count  is  against 
him.  Should  he  "place"  the  ball  within  the  correct  space, 
the  second  player  must  hit  it  with  his  racket.  The  object  is 
to  keep  hitting  it  and  sending  it  within  the  proper  lines.  The 
player  who  has  the  highest  count  wins.  The  system  of 
points  is  the  same  as  that  used  in  tennis. 

How  A  CANAL  LOCK  WORKS 

A  person  who  has  never  traveled  on  a  canal  is  always 
interested  in  the  operation  of  the  locks.  A  lock  is  a  struc- 
ture in  a  canal  that  is  designed  to  raise  boats  from  a  low 
level  to  a  higher  one  or  vice  versa.  Since  the  land  through 
which  a  canal  flows  is  not  absolutely  level,  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  raise  or  lower  a  boat  with  the  changing  height 
of  the  water. 

The  lock  has  two  strong  gates  across  the  canal.  These 
separate  the  two  levels  of  water.  When  a  boat  comes  to  the 
lock  from  the  low  level,  the  gate  is  opened  and  it  is  allowed 
to  enter.  The  gate  is  then  shut  and  the  boat  is  inclosed 
between  the  two  gates.  The  second  gate  is  then  opened,  and 
the  water  from  the  higher  level  gradually  runs  in.  The 
boat  is  raised  slowly.  When  the  gate  is  opened  wide,  the 
water  in  the  lock  is  the  same  height  as  the  higher  level  in 

142 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

the  canal.     The  boat   is  then  pulled  out  of  the  lock   and 
proceeds  on  its  way. 

Teachers'  manuals  on  the  teaching  of  composition 
are  replete  with  expositions  of  this  type,  excerpts 
that  give  a  list  of  impersonal  directions,  written,  as 
far  as  the  child  is  concerned,  for  no  other  purpose 
than  to  illustrate  technicalities  of  formal  language. 
No  worth-while  effort  by  the  child  can  find  its  impulse 
in  the  indifference  which  such  models  arouse. 

How  can  one  add  the  personal  touch  and  introduce 
motive  in  the  exposition  written  by  school  pupils  ?  An 
analysis  of  the  following  essay  written  by  a  7  A  boy 
may  give  the  answer: 

His  FIRST  SWIMMING  LESSON 

My  last  summer  was  not  the  happiest  one  of  my  life  for 
not  many  weeks  had  passed  before  I  broke  my  leg  in  a  bad 
fall  down  the  stairs.  It  was  difficult  indeed  for  me  to  get 
about  with  my  clumsy  crutches  and  my  foot  in  plaster.  The 
day  was  hot  and  I  felt  that  I  would  enjoy  the  cool  breezes 
of  the  East  River.  I  therefore  hobbled  over  on  my  crutches 
to  the  dock  which  is  only  three  blocks  from  my  house. 

I  had  not  been  there  very  long  when  one  of  the  boys  who 
was  carelessly  jumping  from  one  canal  boat  to  another  and 
from  one  raft  to  another,  slipped  and  fell  in.  By  the  terrible 
struggle  to  grasp  the  raft  I  saw  he  could  not  swim.  Had 
I  been  well  I  could  have  saved  him.  But  with  my  bandaged 
leg  I  could  do  nothing.  I  rushed  to  the  end  of  the  pier  as 
well  as  I  could.  By  this  time  the  lad  luckily  grasped  a 
loose  board.  As  he  held  on  I  shouted  my  directions  to  him. 

I  told  him  to  fill  his  lungs  with  a  deep  breath  and  hold 
his  head  above  water.  As  soon  as  he  did  this  I  advised  him 

143 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

to  kick  with  his  legs  and  push  the  board  in  the  direction  of 
the  raft.  He  tried  it  but  Was  too  excited  to  do  it  right. 
I  then  told  him  to  push  the  board  under  his  arms  to  be  sure 
of  support.  He  did  it.  I  then  began  the  arm  movement, 
hands  together,  all  the  way  out,  palms  turned  out  and  each 
arm  pushing  through  the  water  in  a  semicircle  until  the 
palms  touch,  then  push  hands  out  again.  He  did  as  he  saw 
me  do  and  covered  a  short  distance.  I  then  shouted  to  him 
to  keep  his  legs  working.  Just  then  a  swell  of  a  passing 
boat  pushed  him  with  some  force  and  he  reached  the  raft. 
It  was  an  exciting  day  but  even  if  I  did  not  save  the 
careless  boy,  I  gave  him  his  first  lesson  in  swimming. 

The  feeling  one  gets  on  reading  this  child's  effort  is 
that  the  exposition  of  the  swimming  strokes  is  not 
forced ;  it  is  not  written  because  he  was  trying  to  carry 
out  the  set  formula  for  this  special  form  of  composi- 
tion. Its  setting  is  natural,  its  context  is  real,  its  ex- 
planations are  spontaneous,  and  its  very  expression 
intensely  personal.  The  following  list  of  topics  may 
give  added  illustrations  of  how  to  introduce  a  personal 
note  in  exposition  in  order  to  produce  more  spirited 
and  lifelike  results : 

"The  Boy  on  the  Coaching  Line  Advising  the  Play- 
ers." 

"The  Captain  of  the  Basket-ball  Team  Explaining 
the  Signals  to  His  Players." 

"The  Captain  of  the  Baseball  Team  Giving   His 
Players  Instruction  in  'Stealing  Bases/  ' 

"How  I  Won  the  Championship  in  the  Ping-Pong 
Tournament." 

"How  I  Made  My  Record  in  Tennis." 
144 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

"How  I  Made  a  Tabouret  that  Won  My  Teacher's 

Praise." 
"Why  the  Apron  I  Sewed  Was  Not  a  Success,"  etc. 

IV.  Argumentation. — In    a    previous    connection, 
necessary  cautions,  suggestions,  and  a  list  of  appro- 
priate topics  for  argumentation  were  given.     Nothing 
need  be  added  here  for  elementary  composition. 

V.  Invention. — This  is  a  form  of  composition  that 
finds  the  children  most  responsive,  for  it  appeals  to 
their  sense  of  originality ;  it  calls  for  all  their  ingenu- 
ity and  for  a  full  and  free  expression  of  those  ideas 
that  crave  most  for  utterance.     It  is  obvious  that  the 
forms  of  inventive  composition  can  be  as  varied  as 
the  teachers  who  guide  the  lessons  and  the  children 
who  write  the  final  product.     The  forms  most  fre- 
quently used  are: 

A.  Imaginary  Conversations. — The  success  of 
these  compositions  is  determined  primarily  by  the  ap- 
propriateness of  the  topics  selected.  The  following 
situations  have  brought  uniformly  good  results : 

i.  The  Little  Girl  Pleading  with  Lincoln  for  Her 
Brother's  Life. 

One  cold,  damp  Sunday  morning  in  the  spring  of  1863  a 
little  girl  was  seen  ascending  the  steps  of  the  White  House. 
She  rushed  past  the  guard  at  the  main  entrance  and  before 
she  could  be  overtaken  was  in  the  large  office  of  President 
Lincoln.  The  president,  surprised,  looked  up  with  a  start 
and  then  asked: 

"What  can  I  do  for  you,  my  dear  girl  ?" 

"I  have  come  to  ask  for  a  great  favor." 

"To  plead  for  your  rebel  father,  I  suppose/' 

145 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

"No,  sir,  for  my  brother,  John." 

"A  rebel  who  should  be  freed  for  shooting  his  northern 
countrymen,  I  suppose." 

"No,  sir,  he  is  a  loyal  supporter  of  his  country's  flag." 

"Then  why  come  here  to  plead  for  him?" 

"Because,  sir,  he  fell  asleep  while  on  sentinel  duty.  For 
eighteen  hours  he  fought  bravely  with  his  regiment  and 
helped  win  the  battle.  When  the  fighting  was  over,  he  was 
put  in  the  first  batch  of  sentinels.  He  is  not  strong,  he  is 
young,  only  eighteen.  He  trotted  up  and  down  and,  before 
he  knew  it,  he  was  asleep  at  his  post.  He  was  caught  and 
is  sentenced  to  be  shot." 

"His  offense  is  a  grave  one  indeed,"  said  the  President, 
"but  so  brave  a  boy  and  the  brother  of  such  a  sister  can  be 
of  greater  service  above  ground  than  under  it.  Go  home, 
you  have  saved  your  brother." 

In  her  great  joy  the  little  girl  rushed  from  the  office 
without  stopping  to  thank  President  Lincoln. 

B....A....  6B. 

2.  An  Encounter  with  a  Beggar. — The  writer  of 
the  composition  meets  the  beggar,  who  solicits  aid.    A 
conversation  ensues  in  which  the  sad  life  of  the  beg- 
gar, the  series  of  misfortunes,  the  downward  path, 
etc.,  are  brought  out. 

3.  The   Capture   of   Andre. — The  three   patriots 
stop  the  inquiring  stranger ;  the  conversation  in  which 
Andre  raises  their   suspicions  and  finally  implicates 
himself,  the  search,  the  conference  among  the  patriots, 
the  decision  to  bring  Andre  to  the  American  com- 
mander. 

4.  Columbus  Before  the  Court  of  Spain. — Colum- 
bus  explains  his  ideas  and  hopes,  the  sceptical  and 
sarcastic  questions  of  the  ministers,  the  sympathetic 

146 


HOW  TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

questions  of  Isabella,  the  answers  of  Columbus,  the 
final  convincing  argument,  Isabella's  offer  of  her 
jewels,  etc.  This  topic  allows  for  a  skillful  blending 
of  exposition  and  dialogue,  and  for  effective  correla- 
tion of  history  and  composition. 

5.  Cat-and-Mouse  Story. — The  following  effort 
by  an  eighth-year  pupil  shows  a  commendable  result. 
It  is  given  in  full  because  the  topic  and  the  organiza- 
tion will  readily  suggest  to  the  teacher  a  host  of  simi- 
lar situations  appropriate  for  the  needs  of  any  class: 

AN  INCIDENT 

Plump!   Bing!     Tarra-r-r !     Bang! 

'"What  in  the  world  was  that?"  said  I,  startled  by  the 
noises  which  were  heard  from  the  cellar. 

"There  goes  the  shelf  with  the  tin  cans,"  answered  my 
brother,  turning  a  white  face  toward  me. 

"I  guess  there  must  be  robbers  down  in  the  cellar,"  said 
I,  trying  to  look  scared,  although  I  could  hardly  keep  from 
laughing.  . 

My  brother  looked  to  see  if  I  was  in  earnest,  but  he  soon 
discovered  the  deception,  and  we  both  laughed  outright. 

"That's  Tabby  hunting  for  mice,"  said  I,  and  with  that 
we  each  took  a  candle  and  crept  down  to  the  cellar. 

The  maltese  cat  met  us  with  a  glad  "meouow,"  and  we 
noticed  that  he  was  licking  his  chops  in  a  satisfied  manner. 

The  Cat's  Story 

"Well,  you  see  it  was  this  way,"  said  the  cat,  when 
asked  to  relate  the  incident  on  the  back  fence  to  the  assem- 
bly, who  generally  congregated  for  the  usual  evening  con- 
cert. "I  had  been  taking  a  nap  on  the  trunk,  when  some- 
thing stepped  on  my  tail,  and,  turning  around,  I  found  Mr. 

147 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Gray  Ears  and  Mrs.  White  Tail  sitting  there  and  staring 
at  me.  With  a  cry  I  sprang  toward  them,  but  they  suc- 
ceeded in  scurrying  away  with  me  close  at  their  heels,  but  I 
caught  Mrs.  White  Tail.  I  could  have  caught  Mr.  Gray 

Ears  only  I  did  not  want  to  eat  too  much,  so  I  let " 

Wiff!  Poor  Tabby  toppled  off  the  fence  from  the  effect 
of  a  well-aimed  shoe,  which  had  just  come  from  the  top- 
story  window  of  a  house  nearby.  The  audience  soon  dis- 
persed, and  all  scattered  to  their  respective  homes. 

The  Mouse's  Story 

"Friends,  countrymen  and  mice,  I  have  just  passed 
through  the  most  thrilling  experience  that  has  ever  befallen 
any  of  our  great  tribe.  I  have  met  our  worst  foe  and  van- 
quished him. 

"You  knew  that  I  and  Mrs.  White  Tail  took  a  walk  yes- 
terday. When  happening  to  cross  the  wood  pile  I  discov- 
ered the  cat  sleeping  on  the  trunk.  I  bravely  walked  over 
and  stepped  on  his  tail,  so  he  would  awake.  The  minute 
he  tried  to  spring  at  me,  I  rushed  at  him.  He  turned  and 
was  going  to  run  away,  when  he  saw  Mrs.  White  Tail, 
and  quickly  grabbing  her  in  his  mouth  he  ran  away.  I 
pursued  him,  but  he  outdistanced  me,  and  so  I  had  to  come 
home  without  poor  Mrs.  White  Tail." 

6.     On  Board  the  Caravel. 

ON  BOARD  THE  CARAVEL 

The  following  conversation  took  place  between  Columbus 
and  his  sailors  in  mid-ocean: 

"Where  are  you  taking  us?"  shouted  the  sailors. 

"You  are  going  on  this  journey  for  fame,  and  your 
mothers  will  be  better  off  when  we  return,"  said  Columbus. 
"We  will  never  see  our  parents  any  more,"  replied  the 
sailors  sadly.  "We  will  reach  land  in  a  few  more  days," 

148 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

>ke  Columbus  hopefully.  "We  will  see  our  death  by  that 
time,"  they  shouted  as  they  walked  away  towards  the  deck 
where  other  sailors  were  conversing  secretly  about  their 
plans.  Finally  one  sailor  said,  "Let's  make  him  reverse  the 
ship  and  take  us  home." 

"That's  a  good  idea;  his  life  now  lies  in  our  hands," 
said  the  sailors.  "Who  will  volunteer  to  take  the  mes- 
sage?" asked  the  sailors  doubtfully.  "I  will,"  answered 
one  sailor,  who  was  attempting  to  stir  up  a  mutiny  aboard 
ship. 

The  sailor  walking  towards  Columbus  said,  "Columbus, 
reverse  the  ship,  and  your  life  will  be  saved." 

"No;  I  will  keep  on  the  voyage  until  I  discover  land  for 
Spain,"  replied  Columbus  angrily,  yet  firmly. 

"Is  that  your  final  answer,"  replied  the  sailor  bitterly. 
.  A  shrill  whistle  was  heard  and  the  sailors  soon  appeared. 
They  all  crowded  around  Columbus. 

"What  does  this  mean?"  asked  Columbus,  calmly. 

"It  means  that  you  must  reverse  the  ship,  or  we  will  throw 
you  overboard." 

"I  will  have  you  put  in  chains  when  we  arrive  home," 
retorted  Columbus  coolly.  "We  do  not  care,  but  we  will  give 
you  just  a  half-hour  to  think  the  situation  over,"  replied  the 
sailors  as  they  left  Columbus.  While  looking  in  a  westerly 
direction  Columbus  thought  he  saw  land;  he  took  a  pair  of 
spy  glasses,  and,  sure  enough,  it  was  land.  Columbus,  now 
encouraged,  shouted,  "Land  !  Land !" 

The  sailors,  hearing  the  cry,  sprang  from  their  seats  and 
rushed  upon  the  deck  toward  Columbus. 

"Where  is  land?"  asked  the  leader,  impatiently. 

"Look  for  yourselves,"  replied  Columbus,  handing  him  the 
spy  glasses.  The  leader  looked  and  saw  islands  not  far 
away.  They  soon  reached  land,  where,  falling  on  their 
knees,  with  their  faces  turned  toward  heaven,  they  prayed 
that  God  might  protect  them. 

BY  STH  YEAR  PUPIL. 
149 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

B.  Imitation  of  Fables. — A  second  type  of  in- 
ventive composition  that  meets  with  popular  response 
by  the  children  is  the  construction  of  a  fable  in  imi- 
tation of  one  that  was  studied  as  a  model.  The  fable 
of  "The  Wolf  and  the  Lamb"  is  read  and  its  con- 
struction noted.  Similar  elements  are  suggested  and 
the  children  construct  their  own  fables,  e.g.,  "The 
Pike  and  the  Minnow,"  "The  Hen  and  the  Worm," 
"The  Pigeon  and  the  Hawk."  A  fourth-year  pupil  in 
a  foreign  section  of  the  city  gave  the  following  as  his 
result : 

THE  HEN  AND  THE  WORM 

One  bright  day  a  hen  started  out  to  find  some  worms 
for  her  children.  She  right  a  way  met  a  fat  worm.  She 
wanted  to  eat  it,  but  she  wanted,  too,  an  excuse. 

"How  dare  you  clap  on  my  door?"  said  the  hen. 

"How  can  I  clap  on  your  door,  if  I  ain't  got  no  hand," 
said  the  worm. 

"You  are  the  loafer  that  bites  my  children,"  said  the 
fresh  hen. 

"You  are  wrong,"  said  the  worm,  "How  can  I  bite  your 
children  if  I  ain't  got  no  teeth." 

"If  you  didn't  then  your  brother  or  your  father  did," 
said  the  hen.  Whereupon  she  bounced  upon  the  poor  worm 
and  carried  it  away. 

A  lad  whose  stay  on  our  shores  barely  exceeded 
four  months  wrote  on  a  topic  all  his  own  in  trying  to 
imitate  the  fable  which  tells  of  the  rats  in  convention 
deciding  on  a  plan  to  tie  a  bell  on  the  cat's  neck.  The 
phase  of  American  street  life  that  struck  him  most 
inspired  the  following : 

150 


HOW   TO   VITALIZE   COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

THE  BOYS  AND  THE  POLICEMAN 

One  day  boys  was  shooting  crap  so  a  policeman  caught 
hime  and  brought  to  the  station  house. 

And  when  they  got  free  thay  made  a  meeting  and  said, 
what  shel  we  do  to  the  policeman. 

So  one  wise  boy  went  up  and  said,  we  will  put  a  bell  on 
his  neck. 

So  another  boy  went  up  and  said,  who  will  put  the  bell 
on  his  neck? 

C.  Ending  a  Story  Whose  Beginning  Is  Suggested 
to  the  Children. — This  is  another  form  of  inventive 
composition  the  possibilities  of  which  were  discussed 
in  a  previous  connection  in  Chapter  IV. 

D.  Personification     of     Inanimate     Objects.  —  A 
fourth  popular  form  of  inventive  composition  is  the 
autobiography  of  an  inanimate  object.     While  these 
topics  usually  prompt  successful  results,  the  teacher 
must  be  careful  not  to  personify  an  object  that  means 
little  or  nothing  to  the  child.     The  autobiography  of 
an  eraser,  of  a  coffee  bean,  of  a  package  of  tea,  etc., 
are  topics  that  allow  for  much  correlation,  but  the 
child  is  nevertheless  indifferent  to  the  life  history  of 
these  articles.     The  object  chosen  for  personification 
must  be  one  that  thrills  the  child,  stirs  his  imagina- 
tion rather  than  his  memory,  or  is  at  times  a  source  of 
joy  to  him.    The  following  are  compositions  by  school 
children  showing  topics  that  were  happily  chosen : 

THE  BASEBALL'S  STORY 

"I  was  once  a  proud  baseball,  proud  of  my  white  glisten- 
ing cover  and  the  trade-mark  so  conspicuously  placed  on  my 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

head.  My  stitches  were  of  the  brightest  red,  and  were  so 
becoming  to  me  that  I  was  the  most  talked  of  person  in 
our  store.  In  fact  the  wagon-tongue  bat  lying  on  the  shelf 
became  so  envious  of  me  that  he  would  gnash  his  teeth  and 
would  threaten  that  if  he  ever  got  a  chance  he  would  pay 
back  the  grudge  he  owed  me.  But  what  did  I  care  for  the 
mutterings  of  a  miserable  old  bat.  So  the  days  passed  on 
without  any  special  happenings. 

"One  day  as  I  was  lying  on  the  counter  in  my  softly 
lined  box  a  man  came  in  and  asked  our  salesman  if  he  had 
any  good  baseballs.  I  was  immediately  chosen.  'That  one 
will  do/  said  the  man,  taking  me  out  of  my  soft  box  and 
placing  me  roughly  into  his  pocket.  'Now,  I'd  like  to  see  a 
bat,'  continued  the  man.  My  enemy  on  the  shelf  was 
brought  out  and  he  also  was  purchased. 

"I  knew  nothing  until  I  felt  myself  being  taken  out  of 
that  hot  stuffy  pocket.  When  I  beheld  the  light  again,  I 
uttered  a  sigh  of  relief.  Turning  around,  I  saw  my  old 
enemy,  the  wagon-tongue  bat,  grinning  at  me.  This  morti- 
fied me  very  much.  I  was  then  tossed  to  a  man  whom  I 
had  never  seen  before  and  he  looked  so  queer  in  short 
trousers  and  striped  stockings  that  in  spite  of  my  sadness  I 
could  not  resist  laughing  at  him.  He  took  me  in  the  palm 
of  his  hand  and  threw  me  so  swiftly  to  the  catcher,  that  I 
barely  had  time  to  catch  my  breath.  'Strike  one/  I  heard 
somebody  call.  One  thing  that  attracted  my  attention  on 
my  way  to  the  catcher  was  the  manner  in  which  the  wagon- 
tongue  was  eyeing  me.  I  was  tossed  to  the  pitcher.  He 
twisted  me  in  his  fingers  and  curved  his  wrist  so  that  I 
feared  he  would  break  it.  I  was  again  thrown,  yet  so 
queerly  did  I  twist  and  turn  that  I  became  giddy  and  knew 
nothing  until  I  found  myself  in  the  catcher's  glove  as  before, 
and  my  enemy,  the  old  wagon-tongue  bat,  rushing  at  me 
with  great  violence,  but  failing  to  hit  me.  'Strike  two/  the 
same  voice  cried.  I  was  again  thrown  to  the  pitcher,  who 
after  twisting  me  in  his  fingers  as  usual  delivered  me. 
Crack !  Oh,  my !  The  wagon-tongue  bat  had  carried  out 

152 


HOW  TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

his  threat  at  last  and  with  a  terrific  whack  sent  me  speeding 
into  space.  'Ha,  ha !'  I  heard  him  laugh.  'I  have  caught 
you  at  last,  proud  one.'  I  knew  nothing  until  I  found  myself 
lying  here  in  this  dark  crevice.  How  I  came  here  I  am 
unable  to  say,  but  my  opinion  is  that  after  striking  the 
ground  I  must  have  rolled  into  this  dungeon.  But  now 
look  at  me;  begrimed  and  dirty.  I,  who  was  once  so  proud 
and  vain,  am  hidden  from  all  the  world,  perhaps  forever." 

BRUTUS'  SWORD 

"Oh !  what  a  cruel  life  I  have  led,"  murmured  a  beautiful 
sword  wearily,  as  it  lay  beside  its  dead  master,  the  noble 
Brutus.  "It  seems,  too,  most  strange,  that  I,  praised  as  I 
have  been,  should  have  committed  so  many  cruel  deeds. 

"When  made  I  was  one  of  the  handsomest  of  my  kind. 
While  admiring  myself  I  was  clutched  by  a  hand  that 
showed  firmness  of  character.  Looking  up  I  recognized  my 
new  master,  the  noble  Brutus.  I  was  bought  on  the  Kalends 
of  March,  and  lived  in  peace  until  the  Ide  of  March.  But 
on  that  day  I  unwillingly  undertook  to  do  the  most  wretched 
deed  of  all.  I  together  with  fifty  others  of  my  kind,  all 
with  their  respective  masters,  Cassius,  Casca,  Metellus,  Cim- 
ber,  Decius,  Trebonius  and  others,  waited  on  the  steps  of 
the  Capitol  ready  to  assassinate  the  ambitious  Caesar.  When 
Caesar  had  been  seated  the  murderous  Casca  crept  up  behind 
him  and  plunged  his  sword  into  Caesar's  body.  As  he  did 
so,  Caesar  jumped  and  shouted  aloud,  but  in  vain,  for  as  he 
stood  a  shower  of  daggers  pierced  his  breast.  I  was  among 
the  last  to  do  this  awful  deed  and  as  I  ran  through  him  he 
cried  to  my  master,  'Et  tu,  Brutus'  I  burned  for  shame 
and  when  I  was  put  into  my  scabbard  I  shed  many  a  bitter 
tear. 

"My  life  of  cruelty  was  not  over,  for  after  Mark  Antony 
had  delivered  his  oration,  my  master  was  pursued  by  the 
citizens  of  Rome.  He  fled  to  Philippi,  where  a  battle  took 
place.  Here  I  was  used  very  frequently.  But  still  worse 

153 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

was  to  come.  When  my  master  heard  that  Cassius  was 
dead,  feeling  unable  to  face  the  enemy  alone,  he  ordered 
his  servant  Strato  to  place  me  so  that  he  might  run  against 
me  and  thus  kill  himself.  Strato  argued,  but  to  no  avail. 
At  last  he  consented  and  now  here  I  lie  awaiting  my  miser- 
able fate." 

E.  Imaginary  Diaries. — These  form  another  type 
of  inventive  exercise  that  brings  enthusiastic  responses 
from  the  children.  The  diary  of  a  beggar,  of  a  sol- 
dier, of  a  sailor,  of  Captain  Peary  at  the  Pole,  of 
Livingstone  and  Stanley  while  on  journeys  in  Africa, 
etc.,  are  usually  productive  of  gratifying  results. 
These  forms  of  invention  can  be  multiplied  to  a  num- 
ber limited  only  by  the  child's  ingenuity  and  the  teach- 
er's ability  to  conceive  new  situations. 

VI.  Biographical  Narratives. — The  lives  of  the 
inspirational  figures  of  literature  and  history  supply 
some  of  the  topics  for  class  composition.  But  as  was 
observed  heretofore,  these  must  not  receive  more  than 
their  proportional  allotment  of  the  composition  pe- 
riods. In  making  the  life  history  of  any  man  the  basis 
of  a  composition,  teachers  should  try  to  avoid  the 
old  hackneyed  sequence  of  birth,  boyhood,  manhood, 
death  and  lasting  results  of  his  work.  The  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  seek  originality  in  the  group- 
ing of  the  facts,  and  should  emphasize  only  the  one  or 
two  great  achievements  that  gave  the  individual  the 
position  he  occupies  in  the  history  of  civilization. 
There  is  no  reason  for  such  complete  categories  of 
details  and  petty  facts  as  one  habitually  finds  in  class- 
room products.  Treated  in  the  traditional  sequence 

154 


HOW  TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

referred  to,  there  can  be  little  or  nothing  that  is  in- 
spirational in  the  biographies  studied  in  the  class.  But 
the  most  distinguishing  characteristic  of  a  biographi- 
cal study  must  be  the  inspiration  which  such  a  life 
stimulates.  The  model  on  the  "Life  of  Hale,"  as 
given  in  Sykes'  "English  Composition  for  Grammar 
Grades,"  illustrates  the  proper  organization  and  the 
proper  relative  value  of  facts  in  biographical  narra- 
tives : 

NATHAN  HALE 

In  1776  Washington  was  endeavoring  to  capture  the  city 
of  New  York  from  the  British.  He  needed  to  know  the 
plans  of  his  opponent,  General  Howe,  and  to  have  maps 
of  the  shores  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Sound. 

Washington  asked  Knowlton  to  call  his  officers  together, 
to  tell  them  of  the  desperate  state  of  affairs,  and  to  ask  for 
a  volunteer.  A  common  spy  could  not  do  the  work,  for  it 
required  a  man  who  understood  military  plans  and  could 
make  drawings.  No  one  responded  to  the  first  appeal.  Men 
who  had  no  fear  of  death  recoiled  from  the  dishonor  of  a 
spy's  fate.  As  Knowlton  was  urging  them  further,  Nathan 
Hale  entered  and  at  once  undertook  the  task.  Any  service 
done  for  one's  country,  he  said,  was  noble.  .  .  . 

Hale  received  his  last  instructions  from  Washington,  and, 
disguised  as  a  school-master,  he  crossed  from  Harlem 
Heights  to  Long  Island.  For  two  weeks  he  was  within  the 
enemy's  lines  and  made  plans  of  all  their  defenses.  His 
work  done,  he  was  staying  at  a  small  tavern  on  the  shore 
waiting  for  the  boat  which  would  take  him  to  safety.  In 
his  shoes  were  the  drawings  with  full  notes  in  Latin.  But 
a  Tory,  a  man  said  to  be  of  his  own  kin,  recognized  him. 
The  man  went  out,  and  a  few  minutes  later  word  was 
brought  Hale  that  a  boat  was  approaching.  He  dashed  out 

155 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

to  meet  it,  and  shouted  greetings  to  his  friends,  as  he 
thought — but  found  muskets  leveled  at  his  breast. 

He  was  carried  to  the  headquarters  of  General  Howe. 
Hale  made  no  secret  of  his  name,  rank,  and  errand,  and 
there  was  no  choice  for  Howe  but  to  sentence  him  to  the 
spy's  fate,  to  be  hanged. 

Early  next  morning  Hale  stood  on  a  ladder  leaned  against 
a  tree.  A  rope  was  about  his  neck ;  the  end  of  the  rope  was 
»  about  to  be  thrown  over  a  limb  of  the  tree.  The  Provost 
Marshal  asked  him  for  a  confession.  Hale  answered:  "I 
only  regret  that  I  have  but  one  life  to  give  for  my  country." 
"Swing  the  rebel  off !"  was  the  command,  and  in  a  moment 
all  was  over. 

The  Provost  Marshal  had  been  unnecessarily  cruel  to  the 
prisoner,  and  had  destroyed  the  letters  Hale  had  written  to 
his  friends,  so  that,  as  he  said,  "The  rebels  should  never 
know  they  had  a  man  who  could  die  with  such  firmness." 
But  Hale's  dying  speech  was  heard  by  a  generous  young 
British  officer,  Captain  Montressor.  Sent  with  a  flag  of  truce 
to  announce  the  execution,  Montressor  repeated  the  words 
to  Captain  Hull  of  the  American  forces.  Such  words  can 
never  die,  and  the  memory  of  such  men  as  Hale  is  immortal. 

VII.  Letters. — Letters,  with  their  complete  variety 
of  form  and  content,  come  next  in  this  list  of  types  of 
expression.  The  early  part  of  this  chapter  gives  in 
detail  suggestions  and  methods  for  letter  writing. 
Letters  may  be  (i)  business;  (2)  social.  In  the 
latter  group,  we  have  (a)  the  formal,  and  (b)  the 
informal.  It  is  overstating  the  case  to  maintain  that 
formal  letters  should  receive  no  attention  in  the  ele- 
mentary school;  they  should  receive  but  little  consid- 
eration until  the  child  develops  a  fair  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency in  writing  the  informal  letter  and  the  busi- 

156 


HOW  TO   VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

ness  letter.  The  stiff  formal  letter  with  its  expression 
of  chilly  sentiment  is  ill  adapted  to  instil  the  enthusi- 
asm that  must  characterize  the  composition  lesson. 

VIII.  Miscellaneous  Suggestions. — To  this  long 
list  of  possibilities  we  may  add  such  topics  as  reports 
to  newspapers ;  reports  to  the  class  on  a  book,  picture 
study,  etc.  With  children  in  the  upper  grades  it  is 
often  desirable  to  unify  this  variety  of  forms  of  ex- 
pression by  having  the  abler  children  outline  a  long 
story  or  a  play  of  three  or  four  scenes.  In  the  first 
lesson  the  plot  is  evolved;  in  each  of  the  succeeding 
periods  a  logical  part  or  a  component  literary  unit  is 
written  until  the  whole  task  is  completed.  Such  a 
story  or  play  must  in  the  nature  of  the  case  be  com- 
posed of  narration,  description  of  places  and  people, 
exposition  of  processes  and  activities,  argumentation, 
dialogues  between  characters — the  whole  variety  of 
forms  of  composition  studied  in  unrelated  lessons.  In- 
terest is  easily  aroused  and  maintained  and  effort  flows 
in  plenty  in  such  related  and  continuous  work.  Where 
composition  is  taught  by  some  group  method,  it  is 
found  that  the  more  proficient  children  produce  re- 
sults that  are  well  worth  dramatizing. 

7.  The  Teacher. — The  final  inquiry,  "How  Can  We 
Vitalize  Composition?'*  was  answered  in  terms  of  a 
number  of  constructive  suggestions,  the  last  of  which 
counseled  variety  of  form  and  content.  The  table  of 
possibilities  that  is  offered,  though  not  scientifically 
accurate  nor  complete,  shows  the  teacher  what  a  rich 
field  of  subject-matter  can  be  brought  to  the  children. 
But  the  most  potent  factor  that  makes  for  efficiency 

157 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

in  composition  teaching  is  the  teacher — his  spirit,  his 
zest,  his  life  and  enthusiasm,  his  faith  in  the  ultimate 
ability  of  the  children.  The  methods  suggested  must 
never  be  regarded  as  more  than  general  guides;  they 
show  proper  tendencies,  correct  goals,  but  they  are  not 
designed  for  accurate  and  absolute  imitation.  Each 
teacher  must  interpret  the  suggestions  in  terms  of  his 
own  peculiar  problems  and  seek  to  adjust  them  to  the 
individual  needs  of  his  specific  class.  Without  this 
personal  interpretation  and  specific  adjustment  all 
methods  are  doomed  to  inevitable  failure. 

SUGGESTED   READING 

ARNOLD,  F.    Special  Methods   of  Instruction,   chap. 

VIII. 
CARPENTER,   BAKER  and   SCOTT.     The  Teaching  of 

English,  pp.  121-1144.    Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
CHUBB,  P.    The  Teaching  of  English,  chap.  XL    The 

Macmillan  Co. 
GOLDWASSER,    I.    E.      Method   and   Methods    in  the 

Teaching  of  English,  chaps.  XV  and  XXII.     D. 

C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Hosic,  JAMES  F.    The  Elementary  Course  in  English, 

pp.  97-128.    University  of  Chicago  Press. 
KIRKPATRICK,  E.  A.     Fundamentals  of  Child  Study, 

chap.  VIII.    The  Macmillan  Co. 
.     How  Children  Learn  to  Talk.    Science,  Sept., 

1891. 
KLAPPER,  PAUL.    Principles  of  Educational  Practice, 

chap.  XII,  pp.  116-123.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
158 


HOW  TO  VITALIZE  COMPOSITION   EXERCISES 

MAXWELL,  W.  H.  An  Experiment  in  Correcting 
Compositions.  Educational  Review,  N.  Y.  7 1240. 

McMuRRY,  CHARLES  A.  Special  Methods  in  Lan- 
guage. The  Macmillan  Co. 

>.  Oral  and  Written  Composition.  New  York 

Teachers  Monograph,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  June, 
1901. 

REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  FIFTEEN.  On  Teach- 
ing of  Composition. 

SPENCER,,  H.    Composition  in  Elementary  School. 

TAYLOR,  J.  S.  Composition  in  Elementary  School.  A. 
S.  Barnes  &  Co. 


PART  II 
THE   FORMAL   ASPECT   OF    COMPOSITION 

CHAPTER   IX 
THE   TEACHING   OF   SPELLING 

Expressional  vs.  Formal  Aspect  of  Composition. — It  is 
obvious  that  the  teaching  of  composition  presents  two 
phases:  The  first  deals  with  the  problem  of  ordering 
ideas  and  giving  expression  to  them  so  that  the  mean- 
ing is  conveyed,  clearly  and  convincingly,  to  another 
mind.  This  expressional  aspect  of  composition  was 
treated  in  the  first  part  of  the  book.  But  ideas  must 
be  expressed  in  commonly  accepted  forms  of  spelling, 
grammar,  punctuation,  etc.  This  second  phase  of  com- 
position, the  purely  formal  or  technical  aspect,  must 
now  be  treated  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teaching 
problems  involved.  The  second  part  of  this  book  will 
therefore  concern  itself  with  the  teaching  of  spelling, 
meaning  and  use,  dictation,  memory  gems  and  gram- 
mar. 

Spelling  Usually  Tested,  not  Taught,— To  children 
and  teachers  alike,  the  spelling  lesson  is  usually  a  dull 
period  and  a  hard  memory  grind.  Despite  the  vig- 

160 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

orous  drills  in  spelling,  the  results  are  poor.  The 
writer's  visits  to  classes  led  him  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  most  instances  spelling  is  tested,  not  taught. 
Lists  of  varying  lengths  are  assigned  in  various  ways 
for  memorization.  The  succeeding  spelling  lesson  is 
occupied  with  a  test  to  discover  those  children  who 
know  the  words  and  those  who  do  not.  Problems  and 
devices  in  the  methodology  of  spelling  have  received 
more  than  passing  attention,  for  spelling  is  rich  in 
fads.  The  spelling  matches,  word  analyses,  and  dia- 
critical markings  which  were  the  boast  of  the  teachers 
of  the  last  generation  have  given  way  to  contextual 
spelling,  multiple  sense  appeal,  exclusive  muscular  ap- 
peal, and  phonogrammic  grouping  which  are  the  meth- 
ods of  the  teacher  of  to-day. 

Objects  of  the  Teaching  of  Spelling. — We  shall  be  in  a 
better  position  to  estimate  the  relative  worth  of  all 
these  devices  and  to  evolve  a  method  of  teaching  spell- 
ing if  we  formulate  in  definite  terms  the  ultimate 
ends  which  must  be  achieved  in  spelling  lessons.  ( i ) 
The  dominant  aim  is  to  inculcate  the  habit  of  writing 
the  word  correctly  in  context  while  consciousness  con- 
cerns itself  primarily  with  the  thought  to  be  expressed. 
The  child  who  writes  correctly  a  word  that  his  teacher 
dictates  with  exaggerated  clearness  while  the  mind 
focalizes  on  the  form  of  the  word  in  question  has  not 
attained  the  highest  end  in  spelling.  Can  the  child 
write  this  word  correctly  while  he  is  lost  in  the  thought 
that  he  is  expressing?  This  is  the  standard  by  which 
good  spelling  must  be  judged.  (2)  A  second  aim  is 
to  develop  the  ability  of  self-correction.  The  spelling 

161 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

lessons  must  teach  children  simple  rules  of  spelling, 
the  use  of  the  dictionary,  and  a  method  of  word  com- 
parison so  that  they  can  correct  the  spelling  in  all  their 
written  work.  (3)  A  third  aim  is  to  make  correct 
spelling  a  matter  of  deep  concern  to  the  children  so 
that  they  will  gladly  suffer  the  inconvenience  of  going 
to  the  dictionary,  or  make  inquiries  rather  than  put 
down  incorrect  forms  of  spelling.  This  "word  con- 
science" can  be  developed  in  the  higher  grades  through 
proper  motivation  in  spelling  lessons,  in  which  teachers 
lead  children  to  feel  the  social  need  of  correct  spelling. 

Principles  Guiding  the  Selection  of  Spelling  Words. — 
How  shall  words  be  chosen  for  the  spelling  exercises 
of  a  grade?  This  is  a  matter  of  importance  when  we 
note  the  wide  divergences  among  the  lists  suggested  in 
standard  spelling  books. 

i.  Spelling  Words  to  be  Taken  from  Expressional 
Rather  than  Inter pretational  Vocabularies.  —  Each 
person  is  the  possessor  of  two  vocabularies.  The 
first,  the  expressional  vocabulary,  is  the  sum  total  of 
the  words  he  uses  in  all  his  writings  and  oral  inter- 
course. But  each  one  of  us  knows  a  greater  stock  of 
words  than  he  employs.  In  listening  to  others  and  in 
reading,  we  meet  words,  the  meanings  of  which  are 
known  to  us  but  which  we  would  nevertheless  not 
use  in  our  own  speech.  This  is  the  interpretational 
vocabulary.  Thus,  a  child  in  the  eighth  grade  may 
know  the  meaning  of  rectitude,  mien,  consecrate,  but 
only  the  unusual  child  would*  use  them.  These  words 
are  evidently  part,  of  the  child's  interpretational  vo- 
cabulary. But  every  eighth-grade  child  uses  receive, 

162 


THE   TEACHING   OF    SPELLING 

believe,  judgment,  prejudice,  guarantee,  repetition, 
and  separate  in  his  expressional  exercises.  Since  the 
need  for  spelling  is  felt  only  in  written  intercourse, 
and  since  only  those  words  which  are  in  the  expres- 
sional vocabulary  will  be  used  in  writing,  it  follows 
that  spelling  words  must  be  taken  out  of  the  expres- 
sional rather  than  the  interpretational  vocabulary. 

An  analysis  of  the  spelling  lists  used  in  many  classes 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  this  law  is  more  honored  in 
the  breach  than  in  the  observance.  Very  often  a  class 
that  averages  ninety  per  cent,  in  formal  spelling  must 
be  ranked  seventy  per  cent,  in  the  spelling  of  the 
composition  and  dictation  exercises.  In  the  desire  to 
gather  a  rich  and  varied  spelling  list,  the  common 
words  in  the  expressional  vocabulary  are  overlooked 
and  the  words  of  the  interpretational  vocabulary  are 
incorporated.  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres  tabulated  the 
words  found  in  about  2,000  social  and  commercial 
letters  of  representative  teachers,  lawyers,  physicians, 
and  business  people.  In  all,  about  24,000  words  were 
listed,  and  only  about  2,000  separate  words  were 
found.  Of  this  latter  number,  about  750  ap- 
peared only  once.  Dr.  Ayres  found  that  43  words 
were  repeated  so  frequently  that  they  made  up  half 
the  whole  number  of  words  tabulated;  seven-eighths 
of  the  whole  number  were  542  common  words  used 
with  great  frequency.  "It  is  evident  that  the  average 
letter  writer  does  not  begin  to  use  even  the  number  of 
words  he  learned  in  elementary  school  grades,  for 
some  spelling  books  contain  over  10,000  separate 
words."  Dr.  Ayres  made  a  further  comparison  of  the 

163 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

words  used  in  letters  with  the  words  in  the  usual 
spelling  lists.  Of  the  414  words  on  the  National  Edu- 
cation Association's  spelling  lists  which  were  used  in 
Cleveland  in  1908,  289  did  not  occur  at  all  in  any  of 
the  2,000  letters.  It  is  evident  that  a  correct  spelling 
list  cannot  be  evolved  by  speculation  on  what  words 
one  ought  to  know.  Experimental  investigation  will 
reveal  a  remarkably  small  list,  which  children  must 
master  before  the  sixth  school  year,  and  which  will 
put  them  in  possession  of  an  expressional  stock  suffi- 
cient for  ordinary  correspondence  after  they  have  left 
school. 

2.  Words  to  Be   Tested  Before  Incorporation  in 
Class  or  Grade  List. — All  words  selected  for  a  class 
or  grade  list  should  be  dictated  to  the  children  in 
natural  context  and  then  corrected.    Only  such  words 
as  are  missed  by  a  majority  of  the  class  ought  to  be- 
come part   of  the  class   list.     Those  that  are  mis- 
spelled by  a  few  or  even  by  a  minority  should  be  in- 
corporated in  the  individual  spelling  list  kept  by  each 
child.     A  test  will  readily  reveal  the  fact  that  many 
wrords  in  the  grade  or  class  list  can  be  spelled  by  a 
large  part  of  the  class  and  must  therefore  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  individual  lists. 

3.  Words  to  Be  Selected  with  a   View  to   Class 
Subjects. — In  assigning  spelling  words  for  any  grade, 
it  should  be  the  practice  to  assign  them  in  that  class 
in  which  they  will  correlate  with  the  other  subjects. 
Words  like  attribute,  modify,  dependent,  should  be 
taught  in  the  grade  that  begins  formal  grammar ;  bor- 
ough, county,  etc.,  in  the  grade  that  studies  local  ge- 

164 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

ography.     In  the  teaching  of  spelling,  correlation  be- 
comes a  means  of  motivation. 

Source  of  Spelling  Words. — Assumed  that  spelling 
words  will  be  selected  in  accordance  with  rational 
principles,  the  next  problem  concerns  itself  with  the 
possible  sources  of  these  words.  Chief  among  them 
we  must  mention: 

1.  All  Expressional  Exercises. — Teachers  must  be 
ever  mindful  of  the  fact  that  spelling  tends  to  be- 
come highly  formalized,  because  it  lacks  content  and 
is  taught  without  motive.     But  when  all  the   chil- 
dren's    written     exercises — compositions,     dictations, 
notebooks,  test  papers,  etc. — are  regarded  as  the  first 
source  of  the  spelling  list,  the  spelling  lessons  become 
possessed,  at  once,  of  both  content  and  motive.     In 
reading  any  written  work  of  the  pupils,  teachers  will 
find  those  words  that  must  become  part  of  the  spelling 
list. 

2.  Terms  Found  Necessary  in  Class  Subjects. — 
All  the  subjects  taught  contain  words  and  expressions 
that  the  children  must  use  in  their  oral  and  written 
recitations.    Words  like  premium,  commission,  insur- 
ance, brokerage,  remittance,  etc.,  will  be  contributed 
by  the  term's  work  in  arithmetic.     In  the  same  way 
every  subject  will  present  its  addition  to  the  child's 
expressional  vocabulary  and,   therefore,   in   the   last 
analysis,  to  the  spelling  list. 

3.  The  Teacher  s  Experience. — Every  teacher  has 
found  that,  regardless  of  the  grade,  certain  words  are 
generally  misspelled  by   the   children.      Such   words 
must,  therefore,  be  incorporated  in  the  spelling  list 

165 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

without  reference  to  the  grade  of  the  children.  A 
teacher  in  a  seventh-year  class  may  find  it  necessary 
to  submit  words  like  too,  their,  wear,  awkward,  be- 
lieve, receive,  proceed,  procedure,  judgment,  and  guar- 
antee to  the  regular  spelling  drill. 

4.  Good  Spelling  Books. — The  disadvantages  of 
spelling  books  are  many ;  they  will  be  discussed  in  an- 
other connection  in  this  chapter.  But  it  is  evident  that 
a  good  spelling  book  may  be  a  helpful  guide  and  a 
suggestive  standard  in  terms  of  which  one's  own  list 
may  be  judged.  After  a  tentative  list  has  been  col- 
lected and  arranged,  it  should  be  compared  with  the 
lists  for  the  same  grade  found  in  standard  spellers. 
Tiiis  comparison  will  reveal  at  once  many  weaknesses 
and  omissions  which  must  be  rectified.  To  make  the 
spelling  book  the  sole  source  of  spelling  words  is  obvi- 
ously wrong,  but  to  ignore  it  is  an  unjustifiable  neglect 
of  a  valuable  aid. 

Media  of  Presenting  Spelling  Words. — The  teacher 
who  has  selected  her  spelling  list  correctly  and  has  had 
recourse  to  all  useful  sources  is  now  confronted  by 
the  problem  of  the  medium  by  means  of  which  the 
words  are  to  be  presented  to  the  class.  The  various 
media  that  are  suggested  must  now  be  analyzed  and 
their  relative  worth  noted. 

i.  Incidental  Presentation. — Many  writers  would 
abolish  all  formal  presentation  of  spelling  and  rely 
upon  the  repeated  but  incidental  and  informal  meet- 
ing of  these  words  in  the  course  of  reading  and  study- 
ing. Chubb  tells  us,  "Do  not  be  fussy  about  it  (spell- 
ing). Good  reading,  clear  enunciation  and  the  ear 

166 


THE   TEACHING   OF    SPELLING 

training  that  goes  with  it  will  do  more  for  spelling 
than  the  routine  of  the  spelling  book.  Write  on  the 
blackboard  words  that  are  generally  misspelled,  and 
let  them  be  listed  in  the  notebooks,  by  way  of  provid- 
ing for  the  eye-minded  and  the  motor-minded  child, 
as  well  as  for  the  ear-minded."  * 

The  teacher,  accustomed  to  the  grind  of  the  formal 
spelling  drill  and  disheartened  by  the  persistence  of 
spelling  errors,  may  be  somewhat  startled  by  this  com- 
plete elimination  of  formal  spelling.  Experience 
teaches  that  incidental  spelling  in  the  average  class  in 
the  ordinary  public  school  is  out  of  the  question. 
Most  children  read  little  and  write  less.  Their  inci- 
dental experience  with  symbols  will  not  suffice  to  give 
them  a  mastery  of  words.  A  psychological  analysis 
of  the  problems  of  reading  and  spelling  will  ree'n- 
force  this  objection  against  incidental  teaching  of 
spelling.  Words  and  phrases  are  read  as  wholes,  and 
not  by  the  synthesis  of  their  component  elements. 
Spelling  is  an  analytical  process  that  focalizes  at- 
tention on  constituent  symbols  in  a  given  word.  Read- 
ing is  a  process  of  thought  acquisition.  Spelling  is 
a  process  of  mastery  of  symbols  in  sequence,  and  is, 
therefore,  no  function  in  reading.  When  introduced 
in  reading  it  develops  habits  that  militate  against  rapid, 
thoughtful  reading  and  make  for  slow  word  reading 
and  lip  movements. 

2.  The  Spelling  Book. — A  medium  of  presenting 
spelling  words  that  is  now  being  revived  is  the  spelling 
book.  Its  use  is  a  moot  question.  Those  in  favor 

*  Chubb :  The  Teaching  of  English,  p.  170. 

167 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

of  a  spelling  book  urge  that  it  saves  time  and  gives 
the  teacher  a  rich  list  graded  by  a  specialist.  But 
assuming  that  the  spelling  book  is  the  best  on  the 
market,  we  must  remember  that  there  is  no  agree- 
ment, thus  far,  on  a  common  list  of  spelling  words. 
A  list  suitable  for  one  school  may  not  be  appropri- 
ate for  another.  Gradation  in  spelling  is  almost 
impossible,  as  neither  length  nor  phonetic  charac- 
teristics are  the  basis  of  classification;  mien,  although 
shorter  than  freedom,  is  considered  more  difficult, 
and  once,,  although  highly  unphonetic,  is  regarded  as 
simpler  than  independent.  In  addition  to  these 
limitations  we  must  add  that  the  spelling  book  makes 
the  spelling  list  a  series  of  words  unrelated  to 
other  subjects,  for  it  is  not  an  outgrowth  of  difficul- 
ties encountered  in  written  expressional  exercises  and 
motive  is,  therefore,  lacking.  The  spelling  book  must 
be  used,  as  was  previously  suggested,  as  a  standard 
by  means  of  which  a  teacher  may  judge  the  worth  of 
her  own  list. 

3.  The  Teacher's  List. — A  means  of  overcoming 
most  of  the  limitations  of  a  spelling  book  is  the  prac- 
tice of  requiring  each  teacher  to  collect  and  systema- 
tize her  own  list.  In  this  way  words  selected  are 
more  appropriate  to  the  grade  and  related  to  the 
written  exercises  of  the  children.  Where  a  teacher's 
list  is  used  it  must  be  mimeographed  so  that  time  will 
not  be  lost  in  needless  copying  and  wrords  will  not  be 
miscopied  by  the  children. 

But  a  list,  culled  by  teachers  or  textbook  writers, 
is  open  to  the  serious  criticism  that  mastery  of  any 

168 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

elements  in  a  list  is  no  guarantee  of  even  approxi- 
mate proficiency  in  using  the  same  elements  in  natural 
context.  As  has  been  said  before,  children  who  spell 
correctly  words  that  are  dictated  in  lists  by  the  teacher 
in  a  spelling  test  misspell  these  very  words  when  they 
use  them  in  their  own  compositions.  It  is  essential 
that  words  be  taught  in  the  same  associations  in 
which  they  will  be  used  later  in  life. 

4.  The  •  Teacher's  List  in  Natural  Context. — It  is 
evident  from  the  objections  to  formal  lists,  that  the 
list  which  is  selected  by  the  teacher  and  then  incor- 
porated into  a  natural  text  will  overcome  the  limi- 
tations of  the  media  previously  suggested.  After  the 
teacher  has  decided  on  the  spelling  list,  the  words 
should  be  grouped  and  a  context  supplied  for  them. 
The  first  twelve  words  in  a  list  selected  by  a  fourth- 
year  teacher  were : 

1.  brought  V  5-  continent  9.  success  V 

2.  discover  V  6.  weave  10.  enemy  V 

3.  thankful  7.  receive  n.  courage 

4.  prison  V  8.  jealous  V  I2-  Columbus  V 

Those  words  that  can  be  related  in  any  way  are 
checked  as  noted  above  and  a  sentence  is  then  woven 
about  them.  Thus,  "Jealous  of  his  success,  the  ene- 

8  9 

m&s  of  Columbus  brought  the  discoverer  of  the  New 

ZO  12  I  2 

World  back  to  Spain  as  a  prisoner,"  affords  a  con- 

4 

text  for  seven  words,  which  form  the  first  day's  spell- 
ing lesson.  Very  often  it  will  be  necessary  to  write  as 

169 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

many  as  four  sentences  to  include  the  words  for  a 
lesson.  But  if  the  selection  is  made,  not  from  twelve 
words  but  from  a  larger  part  of  the  list,  the  text  will 
follow  more  naturally.  At  times  a  stanza  of  a  fa- 
miliar poem  or  an  extract  from  a  selection  in  the 
reader  will  give  this  context.  Thus  an  interesting 
context  was  afforded  for  two  days'  spelling  work  in 
a  third-year  class,  by  Stevenson's  stanza : 

In'  winter  I  get  up  at  night 
And  dress  by  yellow  candle-light. 
In  summer,  quite  the  other  way, 
I  have  to  go  to  bed  by  day. 

These  four  lines  suggest  that  a  phonic  basis  may 
be  selected  for  grouping  the  words  in  the  formal  list. 
Thus  the  word  night  suggests  light,  way  suggests  day, 
etc.  Upon  examining  her  list  a  teacher  may  find  the 
words  would,  could,  and  should,  or  extreme  and  su- 
preme, or  valleys,  keys,  toys,  days,  ladies,  babies,  and 
enemies  scattered  through  the  term's  work.  It  is  ad- 
visable, therefore,  to  gather  all  phonic  similarities  to- 
gether and  teach  them  in  the  same  lesson,  thus  sup- 
planting a  mechanical  association  by  one  that  is  logi- 
cal. The  old  gradation  of  spelling  based  on  the  num- 
ber of  syllables  is  therefore  giving  way  to  gradation 
based  on  related  meaning  or  phonic  similarities.  At 
regular  intervals  each  child  receives  a  mimeographed 
sheet  giving  in  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  stanzas  the 
spelling  words  in  proper  context. 

5.  Supplementary  Lists. — Spelling  lists  should  be 
as  flexible  as  possible,  so  that  every  teacher  may  feel 

170 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

free  to  modify  the  assignment  in  accordance  with  the 
dictates  of  personal  judgment  and  experience  with  a 
particular  class.  It  follows  also  that  in  large  schopls 
there  must  be  some  uniformity  in  requirements  for 
the  sake  of  the  children  as  well  as  for  convenience 
of  supervision.  For  these  reasons  supplementary  lists 
are  advocated  so  that  there  may  be  three  lists  used  by 
a  teacher,  the  grade  list,  the  class  list,  and  the  indi- 
vidual list. 

The  grade  list  is  that  list  which  is  uniform  for 
each  grade  in  a  school  or  in  a  school  district.  These 
words  may  be  taught  parallel  with,  or  in  advance  of, 
the  subjects  from  which  they  are  taken,  the  aim  being 
to  prepare  children  for  difficulties  that  must  inevitably 
arise  in  their  paths  and  thus  prevent  misspelling. 

The  class  list  is  composed  of  those  words  which 
are  misspelled  by  the  majority  of  the  class  in  all  writ- 
ten exercises.  The  aim  of  this  list  is  to  eliminate 
inaccuracies  that  children  have  already  acquired. 
This  list  varies  with  the  class  and  with  each  term. 

The  individual  list  is  kept  by  each  child  and  varies 
necessarily  with  each  child.  Children  must  be  re- 
quired to  list  all  words  that  they  misspell  in  written 
exercises  but  which  are  not  taught  in  class.  These 
lists  should  be  subject  to  regular  inspections,  and 
spelling  periods  should  be  set  aside  when  each  child 
tests  his  neighbor  on  the  words  in  the  individual  list. 
Children  may  be  told  to  write  all  the  words  they  can 
recall  in  a  limited  time.  These  words  are  corrected 
and  the  incorrect  ones  are  then  added  to  the  individual 
list.  In  this  way  a  child  is  learning  not  only  those 

171 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

words  which  the  majority  of  his  classmates  cannot 
spell,  but  also  those  that  sum  up  his  personal  weak- 
nesses in  spelling. 

Method  of  Teaching  Spelling.— Assuming  the  proper 
selection  of  words  and  the  proper  medium  for  pre- 
senting them  to  the  class,  we  must  pass  on  to  the 
consideration  of  the  method  of  teaching  spelling.  The 
complete  method  has  three  distinct  parts:  i.  the 
teaching,  in  which  the  child  learns  under  the  teacher's 
supervision  the  phonic  peculiarities  4of  the  words.  2. 
the  independent  study,  in  which  the  child  tries  to 
master  the  words  taught  in  class.  3.  the  test,  in 
which  the  teacher  seeks  to  ascertain  the  child's  mas- 
tery of  the  words  taught  and  studied. 

Procedure  in  Teaching  Words. — i.  Meaning. — The 
first  step  must  be  the  reading  of  the  text  that  contains 
the  words  to  be  taught  and  the  attempt  to  explain 
their  meaning.  Since  proper  spelling  lists  come  from 
the  children's  expressional  rather  than  interpretational 
vocabularies,  little  or  no  time  will  be  consumed  in 
making  clear  the  meaning  of  the  words. 

2.  Accurate  Pronunciation. — Unusual  care  must  be 
taken  to  guarantee  accurate  pronunciation  of  each 
word.  The  teacher  should  offer  the  pronunciation 
and  should  then  call  upon  children  individually  to 
sound  the  word.  Concert  recitation  should  be  used 
with  caution  and  only  after  a  sufficient  number  of 
children  have  individually  pronounced  the  word  cor- 
rectly. Mispronunciation  or  slovenly  pronunciation 
lies  at  the  root  of  most  faults  in  spelling.  A  foreign 
child  wrote  in  his  composition,  He  vent  vid  me,  but 

172 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

later  in  the  day,  when  his  teacher  dictated  the  same 
sentence,  he  wrote,  He  went  with  me.  The  cause 
for  the  change  is  obvious:  in  the  first  case,  the  child 
sounded  these  words  to  himself  and  spelled  accord- 
ingly; in  the  second  case,  the  child's  ear  heard  the 
correct  sound  and  reproduced  it  accurately.  What 
is  true  in  this  case  is  true  of  all  children — incorrect 
auditory  images  prompt  incorrect  spelling. 

In  teaching  correct  pronunciation,  the  method  of 
imitating  the  teacher  should  not  be  the  sole  procedure. 
Words  should  be  marked  diacritically  and  the  chil- 
dren should  be  called  upon  to  sound  them.  Other 
words  should  be  syllabicated  as  a  cue  to  proper  pro- 
nunciation. In  later  classes  the  words  should  be 
found  in  the  dictionary  and  the  pronunciation  evolved. 
Time  spent  on  careful  pronunciation  is  time  saved 
in  teaching  spelling. 

3.  Syllabication  and  Division  into  Phono grammic 
Units. — The  difficulties  in  most  words  are  removed 
in  the  next  step,  the  syllabication  of  the  word  or  its 
division  into  known  phonic  units.     Words  like  eman- 
cipation,  nationality,   modification,   comparative,  etc., 
are  purely  phonic ;  the  child  that  can  syllabicate  them 
and  recognize  the  known  phonograms  of  tion,  man, 
etc.,  has  no  difficulty  in  spelling  these  words. 

4.  When  Necessary,  Focalize  Attention  on  the  Dif- 
ficulty in  a  Word. — Many  words  are  purely  phonic 
in  all  but  one  respect.     It  is  much  better  to  have  the 
child's  attention  directed  to  this  difficulty  exclusively 
than  to  drill  on  the  whole  word.    Thus,  if  the  word  is 
supreme >  it  is  related  to  extreme  and  the  erne  of  each 

173 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

is  underlined  in  colored  chalk  on  the  board.  In  the  case 
of  the  word  altogether,  the' rule  is  taught  and  the  child 
now  knows  the  spelling  of  always,  also,  etc.  If  the 
word  is  separate,  we  elicit  that  it  means  "cut  into 
parts."  Since  part  is  spelled  with  an  a,  separate  is 
spelled  sepa,  not  sep£,  as  children  repeatedly  do.  In 
the  case  of  phonic  anomalies  like  comb,  pneumonia, 
etc.,  the  peculiarity  is  singled  out  and  attention  called 
to  it  by  encircling  it  with  colored  chalk  or  by  writing 
it  in  different  forms  and  in  exaggerated  sizes.  Every 
means  must  be  taken  to  focalize  attention  on  the 
phonetic  anomaly. 

5.  The  Class  Drills. — Rigorous  drills  should  follow 
the  instruction  step  in  spelling.  These  drills  must 
be  spirited,  planned  to  stir  maximum  self -activity,  and 
designed  to  appeal  to  children  of  different  sense  gifts. 
Among  the  important  forms  of  drill  in  spelling  we 
may  mention  the  following: 

a.  Individual  Oral  Spelling.     Various  children  are 
called  upon  in  promiscuous  order  to  spell  the  word 
as  the  rest  of  the  class  listens  to  the  spelling  and 
sees  the  forms  on  the  board. 

b.  Light  Concert  Spelling.     The  class  as  a  whole 
may  be  asked  to  spell  the  word  orally  in  concert  as 
each  child  follows  visually  the  teacher's  pointer  going 
from  letter  to  letter. 

c.  Flash  Method.     The  word  is  written  on  a  card 
or  on  the  blackboard  and  is  exposed  to  the  view  of 
the  class  for  only  two  or  three  seconds.     At  the  end 
of  that  time  various  children  are  called  upon  to  spell 
the  word  as  they  saw  it.     If  the  class  is  warned  of 

174 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

the  limited  time  that  will  be  allowed  and  the  con- 
centration necessary,  the  results  are  usually  grati- 
fying. 

d.  Motor  Appeal.    The  word  to  be  learned  is  writ- 
ten by  the  children  with  their  fingers  in  the  air  or  on 
the  desk  or  on  paper  with  pencil.    With  many  children 
this  proves  to  be  the  strongest  sense  appeal. 

e.  Visualization.      A    popular    means    of    drill    is 
through  strong  visual  appeal.    The  visualization  drills 
may  be  given  in  many  forms.     The  simplest  of  these 
drills  is  to  have  the  children  look  steadily  at  the  word 
written  in  unusually  large  size  on  the  board.    At  the 
end  of  a  limited  time  the  children  are  asked  to  shut 
their  eyes  and  "see"  the  word.     Those  who  cannot 
"see"  the  word  with  eyes  shut  are  permitted  to  look 
at  the  word  again  and  then  try  to  visualize  it  with 
eyes  shut.     When  all  children  can  "see"  the  word, 
they  are  asked  to  spell  it  as  they  "see"  it. 

Another  method  of  conducting  visualization  drills 
is  especially  applicable  to  higher  classes.  Three  or 
four  words  are  selected  for  simultaneous  drill  and  are 
written  on  the  blackboard  either  in  one  line  or  in  a 
column.  A  word  is  erased  and  then  a  child  is  called 
upon  to  spell  the  word  that  must  be  replaced.  This 
procedure  is  repeated  with  each  of  the  words.  Later 
in  the  term  two  words  are  erased,  e.  g.,  the  second 
and  the  fourth,  and  children  are  called  upon  to  spell 
"the  word  that  was  in  the  second  place,"  or  "the  word 
that  was  in  the  fourth  place."  This  is  usually  a  spir- 
ited and  an  interesting  drill. 

f.  Dictionary.     Another  means  of  drill  on  words 

175 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

is  to  have  the  class  locate  the  word  in  the  dictionary. 
The  effort  in  finding  the.  proper  page  and  column, 
in  comparing  the  word  on  the  board  with  the  word 
in  the  dictionary,  in  noting  the  mode  of  syllabication, 
arouses  enough  self-activity  and  forms  enough  asso- 
ciations to  give  permanence  to  the  impression  that 
the  word  makes. 

These  drills  are  designed  to  give  variety,  speed,  and 
interest  to  the  spelling  periods.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  no  one  word  is  to  be  subjected 
to  all  these  forms  of  drill.  The  method  of  drill 
should  change  with  each  succeeding  word  so  that  the 
elements  of  variety  and  novelty  give  spirit  and  en- 
thusiasm to  the  lesson. 

General  Considerations  Governing  Drills  in  Spelling. — 
It  is  obvious  that  drills  in  spelling  in  order  to  be  effec- 
tive must  make  a  multiple  sense  appeal;  they  must 
impress  the  visual-minded,  the  auditory-minded,  and 
the  motor-minded  children.  Children  should  be 
taught  as  early  as  possible  that  the  senses  are  not 
equally  efficient ;  that  they  vary  with  each  individual ; 
that  one  can  find  out,  by  "self  study/'  whether  he  is 
visual,  auditory,  or  motor  minded.  In  a  properly 
organized  educational  system,  children  should  be 
tested  in  the  psychological  laboratories  for  these  facts. 
But  in  the  absence  of  these  tests  much  can  be  done 
by  the  pupils  themselves.  The  child  who  discovers 
his  special  sense  gift  can  save  himself  needless  mem- 
ory drill. 

In  the  past  the  visual  appeal  was  thought  to  make 
the  most  vital  contribution  to  the  general  image  of 


THE   TEACHING    OF    SPELLING 

the  word.  But  recent  psychological  investigations 
tend  to  prove  that  it  is  the  motor  appeal  that  makes 
permanent  the  graphic  character  of  a  word  and  habitu- 
ates its  writing.  Experiments  with  patients  suffering 
from  aphasia  and  agraphia  show  that  although  the 
visual  center  must  make  its  contributions  if  we 
are  to  write  words  easily,  writing  can  be  accom- 
plished without  these  contributions.  Adults  and 
children  were  taught  the  Greek  alphabet  in  two  ways. 
One  group  was  blindfolded  and  learned  the  letters  by 
tracing  them  with  their  fingers;  the  other  group 
learned  them  through  visual  experience.  When  the 
results  were  tabulated  they  bore  out  Professor 
O'Shea's  contentions,  "The  visual  image  is  not  the  all 
controlling  factor.  ...  As  development  occurs,  the 
visual  imagery  takes  on  even  more  the  simple  func- 
tion of  mere  suggestion.  ...  It  (visual  imagery) 
does  not  appear  to  be  essential  to  the  graphic  repro- 
duction of  auditory  words." 

The  practical  estimate  of  the  relative  importance 
of  the  contributions  made  by  the  various  senses  re- 
enforces  the  conclusion  of  psychological  investigations 
as  to  the  vital  importance  of  the  motor  appeal.  The 
primary  object  in  spelling  is  to  reduce  the  zvriting 
of  the  word  to  habit.  Oral  spelling  and  visual  ap- 
peals are  used  only  as  aids  toward  permanent  fixa- 
tion, but  neither  has  worth  in  social  intercourse.  The 
child  who  wins  the  oral  spelling  match  but  who 
hesitates  in  writing  these  words  is  a  poor  speller, 
while  his  neighbor  who  is  utterly  confused  in  oral 
spelling  but  who  writes  the  words  automatically  has 

177 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

reached  a  high  level  of  proficiency.  Since  spelling  is 
made  necessary  by  written  intercourse  the  written  ap- 
peal must  be  considered  the  most  important  form  of 
spelling  drill. 

Independent  Study  of  Spelling. — Many  children  need 
no  further  drill  than  was  outlined  in  the  discussion 
of  the  procedure  in  the  teaching  of  spelling.  But  in 
every  class  there  are  pupils  whose  impressionability 
and  retention  are  weak  and  further  memory  appeals 
are  necessary.  Only  these  latter  children  require  addi- 
tional drill,  e.  g.,  writing  spelling  words  in  and  out  of 
context.  The  practice  of  excusing  from  further  drill 
those  children  for  whom  the  class  spelling  lesson  is 
sufficient  will  tend  to  intensify  attention  during  the 
period  of  instruction. 

Teaching  Children  to  Study  Spelling. — In  later 
grades  children  should  be  taught  how  to  study  spell- 
ing without  the  teacher's  aid  and  direction.  A  para- 
graph in  one  of  the  textbooks  should  be  assigned  for 
this  purpose.  Elicit  from  the  class  that  the  first  task 
must  be  a  selective  one  in  which  they  eliminate  such 
words  as  offer  no  difficulties  jeither  because  they  are 
known  or  because  they  are  purely  phonetic  in  their 
spelling.  The  words  that  merit  attention  are  then 
looked  up  in  the  dictionary  for  meaning,  if  neces- 
sary, and  for  pronunciation  and  syllabication.  Chil- 
dren in  a  seventh-year  grade  when  asked  to  do  this 
with  such  words  as  salient,  surety,  soliloquy,  siphon, 
etc.,  showed  very  clearly  that  they  lacked  an  elementary 
knowledge  of  the  alphabetic  sequence  in  the  diction- 
ary and  of  diacritical  marks.  After  the  dictionary 

178 


THE   TEACHING   OF    SPELLING 

work  is  accomplished  children  must  be  led  to  detect 
that  phonic  element  in  each  word  that  renders  it  diffi- 
cult. That  done,  they  can  now  follow  any  of  the 
forms  of  drill  used  in  the  class. 

Study  lessons  in  spelling  may  take  other  forms. 
A  list  of  words  like  consider,  companion,  tax,  pleas- 
ure, value,  adapt,  measure,  favor,  etc.,  is  written  on 
the  board.  The  children  are  told  to  add  able  to  each 
and  then  look  up  the  spelling  in  the  dictionary  to  see 
if  any  changes  are  necessary.  This  task  completed, 
each  child  must  try  to  formulate  a  rule  in  spelling  tp 
govern  such  cases  or  must  try  to  find  the  suitable  rule 
in  the  "Rules  for  Spelling"  given  in  his  dictionary. 
Such  study  lessons  are  means  of  developing  judg- 
ment, initiative,  power  of  organization,  and  self-re- 
liance, and  afford  a  natural  method  of  teaching  chil- 
dren those  mechanical  elements  in  the  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary that  every  school  graduate  should  know. 

The  Test  in  Spelling. — In  current  methods  of  test- 
ing children's  ability  to  spell,  the  teacher  dictates  the 
list  of  words  taught  and  the  children  write  these  in 
a  column.  The  correct  form  is  then  shown  or  re- 
cited and  each  child  checks  his  neighbor's  inaccura- 
cies. When  the  papers  are  returned  to  their  owners, 
all  words  misspelled  are  written  correctly  a  given  num- 
ber of  times.  This  writing  degenerates  into  care- 
less penmanship,  in  which  the  child  is  hardly  conscious 
of  the  phonic  elements  and  especially  of  those  that 
gave  him  trouble. 

Test  Ability  to  Use  Word  in  Context. — We  have 
need  for  a  method  that  is  personal  and  constructive 

179 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 


and  that  tests  the  child's  ability  to  use  the  words  in  a 
natural  context  of  his  own.  In  the  test  period  the 
teacher  should  dictate  the  word  and  the  child  should 
be  required  to  write  a  sentence  for  it.  Oral  spelling 
is  not  a  test ;  it  is  a  means  of  further  drill  and  an  aid 
toward  retention.  Only  when  the  child,  intent  on  a 
sentence,  writes  the  dictated  word  correctly  from  force 
of  habit,  is  he  giving  evidence  of  his  mastery  of  the 
word. 

Spelling  Record  in  Books. — The  tests  in  spelling 
should  be  written  in  notebooks  rather  than  on  loose 
sheets  of  paper.  A  notebook  record  of  such  work 
is  cumulative;  it  shows  teacher  and  pupil,  at  a  glance, 
the  curve  of  progress.  A  convenient  arrangement, 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  divides  the  page 
into  two  columns,  the  wider  one  for  the  sentences  con- 
taining the  words  dictated,  and  the  narrower  for  the 
insertion  of  correct  forms  for  all  misspelled  words. 
Each  teacher  must  decide  on  the  best  means  of  correct- 


Date 

Rating 

Jan.  5,  1913 

95% 

Sentences 

Correct 

I.  The  friends  were 

separate 

containing 

form 

very  sad  when 

words  dictated 

of 

the   time   came 

by  the 

words 

for    them    to 

teacher 

misspelled 

se  per  ate. 

2. 

ing  spelling,  whether  by  neighbors,  by  children  them- 
selves, by  monitors  or  by  herself.  But  in  writing  the 
misspelled  word  correctly  the  child  should  be  required 

180 


THE   TEACHING   OF    SPELLING 

to  mark  in  some  way  that  phonic  element  which  is  a 
source  of  trouble  to  him. 

Record  of  Misspelled  Words. — Teachers  will  do  well 
to  devise  some  means  by  which  a  record  can  be  kept 
which  would  show  the  number  of  children  who  mis- 
spelled each  word  and  the  prevailing  errors  made  in 
these  words.  Such  a  record  would  be  an  excellent 
index  of  the  amount  of  drill  that  should  be  given  on 
various  words  in  the  following  terms  and  the  phonic 
elements  that  should  be  emphasized  in  teaching  them. 
In  upper  grades  the  teacher  can  easily  be  relieved,  by 
a  reliable  pupil,  of  most  of  the  mechanical  work  en- 
tailed by  such  a  record.  Examination  of  these  rec- 
ords, kept  for  only  one  term,  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  following  data  sum  up  the  spelling  diffi- 
culties of  pupils  in  upper  grades  of  the  elementary 
school : 

1.  Violation  of   the   Monosyllabic   Rule.      Words 
ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel  double  the  final  consonant  if  the  suffix  begins 
with  a  vowel;  e.  g.,  dropping,  swimming,  swimmer, 
planning  vs.  looking,  lodging,  etc. 

2.  Violation  of  the  Polysyllabic  Rule.     Same  rule 
as  the  above  in  polysyllabic  words  when  the  accent  is 
on  the  last  syllable;  e.  g.,  beginning,  benefiting. 

3.  Words  ending  in  final  e,  drop  the  e  when  the 
suffix  begins  with  a  vowel;  final  e  is  retained  if  the 
suffix  begins  with  a  consonant;  e.  g.,  coming,  riding, 
management,  etc. 

4.  Exceptions  to  preceding  rule;  e.  g.,  judgment, 
truly,  argument,  acknowledgment,  wholly,  etc. 

181 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

5.  Use  of  ie  and  el;  e.  g.,  receive,  believe,  seize,  mis- 
chief,  etc. 

6.  Plurals  of  words  ending  in  y;  e.  g.,  ally,  allies; 
alley,  alle^;  enerrry,  enemies;  valley  valley  etc. 

7.  Plurals    of    words    ending    in    /;    e.    g.,    lea/, 
leaves. 

8.  Words  compounded  on  all,  drop  one  /;  e.  g.,  a/- 
ways, altogether,  etc. 

9.  Difficulties  of  silent  letters;  sovereign,  answer, 
debt,    column,    autumn,    solemn,    cupboard,    doubt, 
dough,  island,  neighbor,  etc. 

10.  Difficulties  due  to  mistaken  consonants;  e.  g., 
conceal,  clothes,  grocer,  medicine,  anchor,  etc. 

11.  Difficulties  due  to  mistaken  vowels,  especially  in 
final  syllables;  e.  g.,  beggar,  sugar,  grammar,  editor, 
etc. 

12.  Difficulties  due  to  tendency  to   insert  letters; 
e.  g.,  immage  for  image,  well  fare  for  welfare,  wood- 
den  for  wooden,  tresspass  for  trespass,  and  truely  for 
truly. 

13.  Difficulties  due  to  omission   of  letters;  e.   g., 
safty  for  safety,  ninty  for  ninety,  asend  for  ascend, 
goverment  for  government,  disapoint  for  disappoint, 
temtation  for  temptation,  etc. 

14.  Miscellaneous  Difficulties;  e.  g.,  separate,  awk- 
ward, guarantee,  repetition,  proceed,  procedure,  pre- 
cede, supersede,  benefit,  description,  occurrence,  occur, 
occasion,  etc. 

This  list  will  undoubtedly  be  modified  in  each  school 
and  in  each  class  in  the  light  of  further  experience  but 
it  gives  the  supervisor  and  teachers  a  working  basis 

182 


THE   TEACHING   OF    SPELLING 

of  real  difficulties  that  must  be  met  in  the  spelling  les- 
sons of  every  grade. 

Enriching  the  Spelling  List. — There  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  spelling  list  useful  homonyms,  abbrevi- 
ations, rules  of  spelling,  and  proper  names.  These 
are  part  of  the  expressional  stock  necessary  in  all 
correspondence.  Proper  names  and  abbreviations  can 
be  taught  in  the  same  method  that  is  used  for  the 
regular  spelling  words.  Homonyms  must  always  be 
presented  in  contrasting  sentences,  such  as,  "There 
they  stand  holding  their  hats  in  their  hands,"  for  the 
association  which  gives  them  permanence  is  the  con- 
trast. In  presenting  them  we  should  lead  children 
to  infer  from  the  text  (a)  the  elements  of  similarity, 
and  (b)  the  elements  of  difference.  This  should  be 
followed  by  a  drill  that  seeks  to  make  their  proper 
use  habitual.  Rules  of  spelling  are  best  taught  in- 
ductively in  study  lessons,  as  was  outlined  in  the  topic 
"Study  Lessons  in  Spelling"  in  this  chapter. 

Supervising  Auxiliary  Lists. — Spelling  lists  cannot 
be  enriched  as  was  suggested  unless  supervising  of- 
ficers take  the  initiative  in  the  matter  of  allotting 
proper  names,  abbreviations,  homonyms,  and  rules  of 
spelling  to  the  various  grades.  In  most  schools  vis- 
ited by  the  author  teachers  are  held  responsible  for 
"useful  rules  of  spelling"  or  "necessary  proper 
names."  It  is  evident  that  this  general  assignment 
to  all  teachers  means  either  total  neglect  of  these  lists 
or  an  attempt  to  teach  all  in  each  grade.  The  super- 
visor must  collect  all  useful  homonyms,  rules  of  spell- 
ing, proper  names  and  abbreviations  and  then,  in  con- 

183 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

ference  with  teachers,  decide  on  a  gradation  of  these 
lists  and  an  apportionment  of  each  list  among  the 
various  grades.  Each  teacher  having  a  certain  num- 
ber of  the  facts  to  teach  can  give  them  the  attention 
and  the  drill  that  will  make  them  part  of  the  perma- 
nent expressional  stock  of  each  child. 


SUGGESTED  READING 

ARNOLD,  F.  Special  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  115- 
130. 

AYRES,  LEONARD  P.  Spelling  Vocabularies  of  Per- 
sonal and  Business  Letters.  Division  of  Educa- 
tion, Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1913. 

BUCKINGHAM,  B.  R.  Spelling  Ability :  Its  Measure- 
ment and  Distribution.  Teachers'  College,  Co- 
lumbia University,  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  59. 

CARPENTER,  BAKER  and  SCOTT.  Teaching  of  Eng- 
lish, pp.  152-155.  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

CORNMANN.     Spelling  in  the  Elementary  School. 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the 
Teaching  of  English,  chap.  XII.  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Co. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.  Linguistic  Development  and  Educa- 
tion, chap.  VIII.  The  Macmillan  Co. 

RICE,  J.  M.  Futility  of  the  Spelling  Grind.  Forum, 
Vol.  23. 

SUZZALLO,  HENRY.  The  Teaching  of  Spelling. 
Houghton-Mifflin  Co. 

184 


CHAPTER    X 

THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 
THE    ENRICHMENT    OF    VOCABULARY 

Shall  There  Be  Formal  Instruction  in  the  Meaning  and 
Use  of  New  Words? — Many  teachers  of  elementary 
grades  have  characterized  formal  lessons  on  the  mean- 
ing of  unfamiliar  words  and  expressions  as  sheer 
waste  of  time  and  effort.  It  is  their  opinion  that 
growth  of  vocabulary  must  be  informal  and  inciden- 
tal in  the  course  of  reading  and  social  intercourse. 
In  support  of  their  conclusions  they  cite  their  own 
experiences :  children  remember  the  meaning  of  very 
few  of  the  new  words  taught;  their  sentences  are  al- 
ways artificial;  the  "meaning  and  use"  list  is  usually 
unrelated  to  other  subjects;  the  need  for  the  meaning 
of  these  new  words  is  not  felt  in  their  own  lives ;  those 
children  who  have  a  language  sense  and  who  read  have 
a  vocabulary  that  is  rich  and  varied,  and  those  who 
lack  this  sense  do  not  develop  it  in  formal  lessons  in 
"meaning  and  use."  A  cursory  investigation  will  un- 
doubtedly bear  out  these  contentions  but  an  analysis  of 
these  indictments  reveals  them  to  be  the  results  of  poor 
methods  of  instruction.  If  the  "meaning  and  use"  list 
is  properly  selected,  if  each  word  arises  in  a  need  felt 
by  the  class,  if  natural  drills  are  provided,  the  serious 

185 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

limitations  of  the  current  "meaning  and  use"  lesson 
will  disappear,  for  they  are  limitations  that  are  not 
inherent  in  this  form  of  language  exercise.  It  is 
the  aim  of  this  chapter  to  evolve  a  method  that  pos- 
sesses these  corrective  influences. 

Selection  of  the  "Meaning  and  Use"  List. — The 
proper  selection  of  the  new  words  whose  meanings 
are  to  be  taught  often  determines  the  final  efficiency 
of  the  lessons.  We  must  omit,  therefore,  (a)  most 
technical  words;  (b)  common  words  used  in  an  un- 
usual sense,  as,  "This  was  a  happy  conceit  of  the  au- 
thor"; (c)  such  words  as  can  be  really  understood 
only  by  a  mature  mind;  (d)  subtle  distinctions  in  syno- 
nyms. At  the  beginning  of  the  term  the  teacher 
should  not  have  a  single  word  in  the  list.  In  the 
course  of  the  day's  work  words  will  arise  which  the 
children  do  not  know  and  upon  which  the  meaning 
of  the  text  depends.  When  such  a  situation  arises 
in  the  teaching  of  any  subject,  whether  it  be  arith- 
metic or  reading,  the  teacher  has  an  opportunity  to 
add  to  the  "meaning  and  use"  list.  But  not  all  new 
words  become  part  of  the  formal  lesson.  As  a  new 
word  arises  the  teacher  must  decide  whether  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  expect  children  of  her  grade  to  have  it  in 
their  expressional  vocabularies.  If  she  decides  in  the 
negative,  the  meaning  of  the  word  should  be  told  to 
the  class  and  the  lesson  should  continue  without 
further  attention  to  it.  Should  the  decision  be  af- 
firmative, the  word  is  written  on  a  large  cardboard 
or  on  an  unused  part  of  the  blackboard  after  the 
meaning  is  given.  The  children  thus  see  the  source 

186 


THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 

of  these  words  and  ample  motive  for  a  formal 
lesson  is  given.  It  is  essential  that  most  of  the 
new  words  be  eliminated  and  that  attention  be  con- 
fined to  those  that  are  of  greatest  worth  for  the  chil- 
dren. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Meaning  of  New  Words. — There 
is  no  fixed  method  of  teaching  the  meaning  of  new 
words.  Each  type  of  word-  necessitates  a  different 
mode  of  treatment.  Chief  among  the  many  methods 
we  have  the  following: 

1.  Deductive  or  Direct  Telling. — When  it  is  neces- 
sary that  technical  words  be  taught  or  when  words 
have  a  meaning  that  cannot  readily  be  inferred  from 
the  text,  the  method  of  direct  telling  must  be  used. 
In   modern   methodology   the    inductive   or   develop- 
ment method  has  become  a  fetish.     We  must  realize 
that  there  are  teaching  situations  in  which  deductive 
teaching  may  be  used  without  apology.     Words  like 
mythology,  sprite,  aqueduct  must  often  be  taught  in 
this  deductive  method  to  young  children.     Then,  too, 
when  new  words  arise  in  a  literature  or  a  history 
lesson  it  shows  lack  of  judgment  of  relative  values  to 
halt  the  lesson  in  question  in  order  to  develop  the 
new  word  by  inductive  treatment.     In  all  such  cases 
the  meaning  of  the  word  should  be  given  and  the 
forward  movement  of  the  lesson  should  not  be  sacri- 
ficed. 

2.  Objective  Method. — When  clear  imaging  must 
be  attained  with  children  whose  apperceptive   stock 
lacks  that  experience  which  will  enable  them  to  con- 
struct the  mental  picture  from  verbal  expression,  a 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

picture  or  the  object  itself  is  of  greatest  service. 
The  child  who  has  never  seen  a  wigwam,  a  toma- 
hawk, a  mariner's  compass,  etc.,  must  be  taught 
what  these  terms  represent  by  means  of  some  graphic 
appeal. 

3.  Inductive  or  Context  Method. — When  the  new 
word  is  one  whose  meaning  is  always  made  clear  by 
the  context,  the  inductive  method  is  to  be  preferred. 
If  the  word  chagrin  is  to  be  taught,  the  teacher  uses 
it  in  a  number  of  sentences,  each  of  which  tends  to 
bring  out  its  meaning.     The  teacher  then  asks  the 
class   to   substitute   appropriate   synonymous    expres- 
sions   for   chagrin,    and   the   meaning   is   thus    elic- 
ited.    Although  it  is  a  method  which  costs  dearly  in 
time,  it  nevertheless  has  its  compensating  advantages 
— maximum  self-activity  is  aroused,  each  child  is  put 
in  the  position  of  discoverer  rather  than  recipient, 
the   impressions   are   more    lasting,    the   meaning    is 
clearer,  and  the  child  learns  a  method  which  he  can 
use  in  post-school  days. 

4.  Dramatization. — A  method  very  similar  to  the 
objective  method  but  one  which  is  characterized  by 
its  exclusive  motor  appeal  is  dramatization.     When 
the  pupils'  vocabularies  are  so  meager  that  they  can 
obtain  meaning  from  neither  the  context  nor  the  teach- 
er's explanation,  the  word  should  be  acted  out  if  it 
lends  itself  to  such  treatment.    This  is  the  device  used 
almost    exclusively    with    foreigners    who    know    no 
English.      Expressions    like   with   arms   akimbo,    he 
strutted  about,  a  frowning  face,  etc.,  when  drama- 
tized, convey  meaning  clearly  and  with  economy  .of 

188 


THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 

time  to  children  whose  language  possessions  are  very 
limited. 

5.  Using    the    Dictionary. — Most    words    are    so 
poorly  denned  in  the  abridged  editions   of  the  dic- 
tionaries used  by  schools  that  the  child  finds  a  syno- 
nym as  new  to  him  as  the  word  which  he  looked  up. 
But  despite  this  handicap  the  habit  of  using  the  dic- 
tionary should  be  inculcated  in  children  as  soon  as 
their  capabilities  will  allow.     The  gradation  and  the 
scope  of  the  lessons  necessary  to  give  children  this 
mastery  of  the  dictionary  were  outlined  in  the  dis- 
cussion on  the  teaching  of  spelling.*     It  must  be  em- 
phasized and  reemphasized  that  the  legitimate  time 
for  the  use  of  the  dictionary  is  the  formal  "meaning 
and  use"  period,  in  home  work,  or  in  seat  work.     It 
should  rarely  be  used  during  any  lesson  in  geography, 
history,  nature  study,  arithmetic,  or  reading. 

6.  Etymological  Analysis. — In  the  second  half  of 
the  school  course  children  must  begin  to  study  the 
most  common  prefixes,  suffixes  and  roots  used  in  the 
English  language.    Carefully  compiled  lists  for  school 
use  give  about  thirty  prefixes,  twenty  suffixes,   and 
about  thirty-five  roots.     If  these  were  divided  among 
the  grades,  beginning  with  the  fifth  year,  each  grade 
would  average  about  five  prefixes,  three  suffixes,  and 
five  roots  per  term.     It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 
with  a  little  drill  children  can  be  taught  those  neces- 
sary language  elements  which  would  enable  them  to 
evolve  the  meaning  of  such  words  as  depose,  super- 
sede, descent,  circumspect,  transparent,  transmit,  su- 

*See  pp.  172,  175. 

189 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

per  structure,  etc.,  by  a  process  of  etymological  analy- 
sis. Lessons  in  etymology  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
ductive. If  a  prefix  is  to  be  taught,  a  number  of 
words  beginning  with  it  should  be  placed  on  the 
board.  Children  should  then  be  required  to  give  or 
find  the  meaning  of  each  word.  The  class  must  then 
be  led  to  perceive  that  all  these  words  have  similar  be- 
ginnings. Through  a  series  of  questions  we  must  elicit 
that  these  words  also  have  a  similar  element  in  their 
meanings.  It  then  becomes  evident  that  the  common 
prefix  produces  the  common  thought  in  each  word  and 
the  function  of  the  prefix  is  discovered  by  each  child. 
The  lesson  concludes  with  an  application  of  this  knowl- 
edge to  new  words  having  the  same  prefix.  Spelling 
books  and  elementary  English  books  are  replete  with 
exercises  and  drills  which  seek  to  apply  these  etymo- 
logical elements  and  make  their  meaning  a  permanent 
possession  of  the  children. 

How  Make  the  Use  of  New  Words  Habitual.— The 
vital  aim  in  the  "meaning  and  use"  lesson  is  evidently 
to  make  each  new  word  learned  a  part  of  the  child's 
active  expressional  vocabulary.  To  achieve  this  end 
we  must  teach  the  use  of  new  words  by  a  method 
which  duplicates  the  method  of  learning  new  words 
outside  the  classroom.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  no 
"meaning  and  use"  list  should  be  organized  in  advance. 
The  teacher  should  wait  until  the  class  sees  the  need 
for  the  meaning  of  certain  words.  After  the  meaning 
is  taught  by  one  of  the  methods  explained,  the  teacher 
must  use  the  word  in  a  number  of  sentences  to  show 
the  children  its  value.  Volunteers  are  now  called 

190 


THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 

upon.  It  is  not  wise  to  force  children  to  use  the 
word  too  early  in  the  lesson.  After  a  number  of 
voluntary  answers  have  been  accepted  the  teacher  may 
insist  on  having  the  word  used  by  any  child  desig- 
nated. If  a  pupil  cannot  think  of  an  original  sen- 
tence in  which  the  word  in  question  applies,  the  child 
may  be  allowed  either  to  paraphrase  or  modify  a 
sentence  already  given  or  to  formulate  a  sentence 
around  an  incident  suggested  by  the  teacher.  Thus, 
if,  for  the  word  venture ;,  one  child  offered  the  sentence 
"Washington  did  not  venture  to  fight  the  English  army 
on  Long  Island,"  another  child  who  cannot  give^a*! * 
original  sentence  should  be  allowed  to  give,  "In  the  re- 
treat through  Manhattan  Island  Washington  did  not 
venture  to  fight  the  enemy" ;  or  the  teacher  might  sug- 
gest, "Columbus — earth  round — unknown  seas,"  and 
the  child  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  say,  "Co- 
lumbus ventured  across  unknown  seas."  EveXy  means 

•\. 

must  be  taken  to  lead  the  child  to  feel  the  value  of  the 
word  and  then  to  desire  to  use  it. 

But  this  mere  formal  use  will  not  make  the  word 
part  of  the  child's  expressional  vocabulary.  There 
must  be  spontaneous  use  in  answer  to  a  definite  need. 
The  "meaning  and  use"  chart  must,  therefore,  be 
constantly  before  the  class.  On  every  occasion,  in 
every  explanation,  and  in  every  command  the  teacher 
must  use  as  many  of  these  words  as  she  can.  Chil- 
dren should  be  encouraged  to  use  them  in  all  recita- 
tions and  in  answer  to  every  question;  if  necessary, 
rewards  in  the  form  of  praise  and  even  marks  should 
be  used  to  stimulate  an  interest  and  a  desire  to  use 

191 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

these  words  in  all  communications.  When  children 
write  their  compositions  they  should  have  the  chart  be- 
fore them  and  should  attempt  to  use  as  many  in  the 
list  as  possible.  This  insistence  on  the  use  of  the 
word  will  make  it  imperative  that  the  same  chart  be 
kept  many  days  and  that  few  words  be  taught.  It  is 
probable  that  in  this  procedure  only  half  or  even  a 
third  of  the  number  of  words  usually  taught  will  be 
taken  up,  but  we  may  rest  unconcerned,  for  every 
means  has  been  taken  to  make  these  words  part  of 
the  natural  and  spontaneous  expressional  vocabulary. 

Definitions. — Much  time  and  useful  energy  are  dis- 
sipated in  teaching  definitions  in  all  subjects.  The 
notion  persists  that  ability  to  formulate  or  repro- 
duce set  definitions  measures  proficiency  in  a  branch 
of  knowledge.  This  standard  fails  absolutely  when 
applied  to  life.  Few  people  can  define  that  which 
is  part  of  their  lives.  The  electrician,  unable  to  de- 
fine electricity,  proceeds  with  his  work  intelligently 
and  achieves  the  end  he  seeks;  the  judge,  unable,  per- 
haps, to  define  justice  satisfactorily,  nevertheless 
metes  it  out  daily;  the  teacher  of  ethics,  unable  to 
define  morality,  nevertheless  inspires  in  his  pupils  a 
love  for  right  conduct.  In  school,  especially  in  gram- 
mar and  "meaning  and  use"  lessons,  the  definition  is 
elevated  to  a  place  that  almost  glorifies  it.  We  must 
insist  that  formal  definitions  be  relegated  in  teach- 
ing to  the  same  plane  of  relative  unimportance  that 
they  occupy  in  practical  life,  for  function,  not  defini- 
tion, determines  use  and  therefore  importance  in  life. 

In  recitation  of  "meaning  and  use"  lessons  teachers 
192 


THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 


should  require  pupils  to  give  a  sentence  for  the  given 
word  before  stating  the  definition.  If  the  sentence 
is  both  original  and  correct,  the  child  knows  the  func- 
tion of  the  word;  its  definition  will  add  little  to  its 
comprehension.  Let  the  reader  select  from  the  page 
a  few  words  that  are  constantly  used  by  him  and 
then  attempt  to  formulate  satisfactory  definitions, 
and  he  will  realize  the  relative  worth  of  function 
and  definition.  If,  therefore,  a  notebook  record  must 
be  made  of  these  words,  the  page  should  be  divided 
into  three  columns,  the  word  should  be  written  in  the 
first,  the  sentence  in  the  second,  and  the  definition,  if 
deemed  necessary,  in  the  third.  The  notebook  ar- 
rangement would  take  the  following  form : 


Word 
i.  observation 


2. 


Original  Sentence 

i.  The  astronomer 
makes  his  ob- 
servations of 
the  heavens 
with  a  tele- 
scope. 

2. 


Definition 

i.  A   careful   not- 
ing. 


Sentences  that  are  isolated  and  so  worded  that  they 
do  not  indicate  the  meaning  of  the  word  should  be 
discouraged  from  the  very  beginning.  Sentences  must 
be  taken  from  the  reading,  the  geography,  and  the  his- 
tory that  are  taught  as  well  as  from  the  round  of  ex- 
periences that  form  the  child's  life.  "The  man  is 
courageous,"  has  no  relation  to  any  of  the  subjects 

193 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

taught  in  the  grade  and  does  not  indicate  the  char- 
acteristics possessed  by  a  courageous  person. 

The  Supplementary  Means  of  Increasing  Vocabulary. 
— The  formal  "meaning  and  use"  drills  are  not  the 
only  means  of  increasing  the  child's  vocabulary.  Al- 
though the  other  agents  are  often  less  direct,  they  are 
nevertheless  not  less  effective  in  many  cases.  Among 
these,  we  must  include  the  following : 

I.  Study  of  Synonyms. — A  formal  drill  on  a  list 
of  synonyms,  e.  g.,  discover  and  invent,  bring  and 
•fetch,  content  and  satisfied,  etc.,  usually  resolves  itself 
into  subtle  analysis  but  does  little  to  add  vital  ele- 
ments to  the  child's  vocabulary.  Unless  these  pairs 
of  synonyms  arise  naturally  in  the  child's  experience, 
they  had  better  be  neglected.  Much  can  be  done 
through  drills  on  synonymous  expressions.  The 
teacher  selects  an  expression  used  too  frequently  by 
the  children  and  subjects  that  to  a  process  of  varia- 
tions. For  some  reason  which  the  teacher  could  not 
explain  a  class  was  using  the  expression  "mad  with," 
as  in  "He  was  mad  with  joy,  excitement,  anger,"  etc. 
This  was  put  on  the  board  and  by  questions  and  sug- 
gestions the  teacher  elicited  that  the  general  idea  of  the 
sentence  "He  was  mad  with  joy"  could  be  expressed 
by  "He  was  overjoyed,"  "He  was  beside  himself  with 
joy,"  "His  joy  knew  no  bounds,"  etc.  Thus  the 
expression  that  had  become  stereotyped  through 
overuse  gave  way  to  more  varied  sentence  structure. 
Such  a  drill  takes  Stock  of  each  child's  verbal  pos- 
sessions and  brings  words  known  but  not  used  into 
active  expression.  The  variation  method  suggested 

194 


THE  MEANING  AND  USE  OF  NEW  WORDS 

in  the  study  of  composition  is  the  most  elaborated 
form  of  these  drills  on  synonymous  expressions. 

2.  The  Library  and  Reading  Circles. — Every  effort 
must  be  made  to  interest  children  in  the  library  so 
that  they  will  be  eager  to  avail  themselves  of  every 
privilege  that  it  offers.    Very  often  much  can  be  done 
through  the  organization  of  reading  circles  that  meet 
regularly  for  discussion  of  books  read  since  the  last 
meeting.     The  child  that  contracts  the  reading  habit 
soon  gives  evidence  of  new  language  possessions.    He 
knows  more  words  in  the  reading  lesson,  his  sentences 
are  better  in  form   and   in  content,    and   his   general 
knowledge  grows  beyond  the  confining  limits  of  per- 
sonal experience. 

3.  Oral  Composition  in  Reading  Lessons. — The  se- 
lection that  is  read  in  class  should  be  subdivided  into 
its  logical  parts.     After  the  first  division  is  read  it 
should  be  subjected  to  a  series  of  questions  which  call 
for  a  reproduction  and  a  discussion  on  the  text.    Chil- 
dren should  be  encouraged  to  appropriate  words  and 
expressions  of  the  author.     If  the  child,  in  formulat- 
ing his  answer,  should  look  at  the  page  and  elect  to  in- 
corporate almost  an  entire  sentence,  he  should  be  en- 
couraged, for  he  sees  the  value  and  experiences  the 
need  of  this  phraseology.     He  has  taken  the  first  step 
toward  adding  a  good  expression  to  his  meager  vo- 
cabulary. 

4.  Etymology  and  the  Habit  of  Using  the  Diction- 
ary.— In  the  discussion  of  the  various  methods  of 
teaching  the  meaning  of  new  words,  we  noted  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  common  etymological  elements  and 

195 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

a  habit  of  using  the  dictionary  are  of  vital  importance 
to  the  child  because  they,  give  permanent  means  of 
enlarging  vocabulary. 

5.  The  Subjects  in   the   Curriculum. — Every   sub- 
ject that  is  taught  adds  to  the  child's  stock  of  expres- 
sions.  In  grammar  modify  and  dependent  are  only  two 
of  many  useful  words  that  are  learned.     In  like  man- 
ner arithmetic,  geography,  history,  and  nature  study 
make  their  permanent  contributions  to  vocabulary. 

6.  Memorization  and  Recitation. — When  children 
memorize  what  they  understand  and  appreciate  and 
then  recite,  not  to  prove  to  the  teacher  that  a  given 
text  was  memorized  in  obedience  to  a  command,  but 
because  of  a  rational  motive,  they  are  incorporating 
many  necessary  words  and  expressions  in  their  own 
vocabularies.     The  details  of  the  method  that  must 
govern  these  memorization  lessons  will  be  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  "Memory  Gems/' 

7.  Participation    in    Social    Intercourse. — Vocabu- 
laries grow,  usually,  in  response  to  conscious  needs. 
When,  therefore,  the  social  life  of  the  child  necessi- 
tates ready  and  frequent  speech,  the  mind  acquires  an 
ever-increasing  stock  of  words  to  meet  this  need.    Chil- 
dren who  belong  to  social  clubs  and  participate  in  the 
discussion  of  the  business  before  the  group,  or  who 
take  active  part  in  the  administration  of  the  pupils' 
self-government  scheme  in  the  school,  usually  give 
evidence  of  growing  vocabularies.     Children  should, 
therefore,  be  encouraged  to  affiliate  themselves  with 
some  group  and  to  become  active  participants  in  its 
social  affairs. 

196 


CHAPTER    XI 

DICTATION:  TEACHING  THE  FORMAL  ASPECT  OF 
COMPOSITION 

There  is  lack  of  unanimity  of  opinion  among  teach- 
ers as  to  the  function  of  the  dictation  lesson.  To 
many  it  is  merely  an  opportunity  to  test  pupils'  knowl- 
edge of  the  formal  phase  of  language.  It  is  evident 
that  dictation  for  such  a  purpose  is  of  little  impor- 
tance, unless  we  add  a  preceding  function — to  teach 
the  laws  governing  the  purely  formal  elements  of  writ- 
ten speech.  We  must  posit,  definitely,  the  aims  of  dic- 
tation before  we  proceed  with  the  method  of  class  in- 
struction. 

Objects  of  Dictation  Lessons. — We  will  now  consider 
the  several  objects  of  dictation  lessons,  (i)  They 
teach  the  technicalities  of  written  composition.  All 
written  composition  has  two  aspects,  we  noted:  the 
expressional  and  the  formal  aspect.  Ideas  cannot 
group  themselves  logically,  clear  and  forceful  sen- 
tences cannot  form,  when  the  mind  is  troubled  with 
matters  of  punctuation,  capitalization,  spelling,  and 
penmanship.  It  is  the  function  of  the  dictation  lesson 
to  teach  these  technical  elements  and  thus  set  free 
the  mind  to  give  itself  exclusively  to  the  expressional 
elements  in  written  composition. 

197 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Among  the  other  aims  of  the  dictation  lesson  we 
may  mention  the  following:  (2)  It  teaches  spelling 
in  a  natural  form.  In  the  spelling  lesson  the  child 
learns  those  words  that  present  some  difficulty  to  a 
majority  of  his  class;  but  in  the  dictation  lesson 
there  is  revealed  to  the  child  his  own  shortcomings. 
(3)  It  makes  the  ear  sensitive  to  spoken  language 
and  thus  trains  for  better  auditory  perception  of  the 
spoken  tongue.  (4)  Rapid  as  well  as  neat  penman- 
ship is  developed.  There  is  great  danger  in  penman- 
ship teaching,  that  neatness  and  accuracy  of  form 
will  be  acquired  at  the  cost  of  speed.  Teachers  used 
to  put  a  premium  on  the  slow,  painful  drawing  of 
letters,  failing  to  realize  that  speed  as  well  as  legi- 
bility must  be  attained.  In  the  dictation  lesson  the 
penmanship  must  necessarily  be  more  rapid.  (5)  In 
a  correct  method,  concentration  is  developed  in  the 
process  of  dictation.  (6)  Habits  of  self-criticism  and 
self -correction  are  acquired  by  the  children,  for  every 
dictation  lesson  ends  with  a  correction  by  the  chil- 
dren of  their  products. 

The  Choice  of  the  Selection  to  Be  Dictated. — The  ends 
to  be  attained  in  a  dictation  lesson  are  often  defeated 
by  poor  selection  of  the  text  that  is  dictated.  It  is 
necessary,  first,  that  each  selection  should  illustrate 
only  one  point  in  the  technicalities  of  language.  Thus, 
one  paragraph  is  chosen  because  it  shows  how  to 
write  social  titles;  another  because  it  illustrates  the 
use  of  commas  in  a  series,  or  the  use  of  quotation 
marks;  still  another  because  some  rule  of  capitaliza- 
tion is  applied.  That  selection  which  can  be  used  to 

198 


DICTATION 

teach  any  one  of  a  half-dozen  facts  of  language  usually 
teaches  nothing. 

A  second  requisite  insists  that  the  successive  texts 
to  be  dictated  be  graded  and  so  organized  that  they 
repeat  a  law  until  its  application  becomes  habitual. 
An  examination  of  the  dictation  exercises  to-day  dis- 
closes the  fact  that  teachers  in  every  class  are  trying 
to  teach  all  the  rules  of  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
capitalization  in  one  term.  Not  until  these  rules 
are  graded  and  allotted  in  limited  numbers  to  each 
grade  will  their  use  become  habit.  When  each  teacher 
knows  that  she  is  responsible  for  only  three  definite 
rules  of  punctuation,  four  in  capitalization,  and  two 
in  spelling,  she  can  so  grade  her  dictation  selections 
that  the  repetition  will  make  them  permanent  posses- 
sions of  the  children. 

Third,  it  is  necessary  that  the  selection  be  suitable 
in  theme  and  language.  Why  dictate  anything  as 
insipid  as  "John  bought  paper,  pens,  ink,  blotters,  and 
blank  books.  Coming  home  he  traveled  by  car,  train, 
bus,  and  bicycle.  On  his  way  he  saw  Mary,  James, 
William,  and  Henry."  The  language  of  the  text 
ought  to  be  above  the  children's  literary  level,  al- 
though on  their  plane  of  comprehension.  In  current 
articles  on  dictation  found  in  pedagogical  journals, 
fervid  pleas  are  made  for  selections  that  inculcate 
lessons  of  ethics  and  patriotism.  This  is  evidently 
sentimentalism  gone  astray.  No  practical  teacher 
reserves  part  of  the  lesson  on  the  use  of  the  semi- 
colon for  an  appeal  to  an  ideal  of  conduct.  Ethics 
and  patriotism  must  be  taught  in  content  lessons, 

199 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

in  history,  in  literature — subjects  with  human  back- 
grounds and  vibrant  with  the  emotions  and  impulses 
of  life. 

Procedure  in  the  Dictation  Lesson. — A  complete  dic- 
tation lesson  requires  a  minimum  of  two  periods  and 
has  three  distinct  parts.  The  first  period  is  occupied 
with  the  problem  of  teaching  the  new  formal  ele- 
ment of  language;  the  second  period  covers  the  sec- 
ond part  of  the  lesson  in  which  the  fact  taught  is 
tested,  and  the  third  part  deals  with  the  correction 
of  the  children's  results.  We  must  follow  the  pro- 
cedure through  these  successive  parts. 

i.  The  Teaching  Period. — Let  us  assume  that  the 
aim  is  to  give  a  first  lesson  on  the  use  of  quotation 
marks.  The  teacher  dictates  pairs  of  sentences  which 
follow  the  type  form  of,  Lawrence  said  that  his  sailors 
should  not  give  up  the  ship,  and,  Lawrence  said  to  his 
sailors,  "Don't  give  up  the  ship."  Children  are 
called  upon  to  write  these  on  the  board,  putting  one 
under  the  other.  Through  questions  the  teacher  then 
elicits,  first,  the  difference  in  thought  in  each  pair 
of  sentences,  viz.,  the  narration  of  an  incident  as  op- 
posed to  the  repetition  of  the  words  of  another,  and 
second,  the  need  of  indicating  this  difference  by  some 
form  of  punctuation.  The  teacher  then  shows  chil- 
dren the  correct  form  of  direct  quotations  and  leads 
them  to  conclude  that  in  using  the  words  of  another 
we  must  have  (a)  comma,  (b)  quotation  marks,  and 
(c)  capitalization.  Sentences  which  have  been  writ- 
ten incorrectly  on  the  blackboard  are  now  corrected  in 
the  light  of  the  rule  of  punctuation  that  was  evolved. 

200 


DICTATION 

More  sentences  may  be  written  and  incorrect  punc- 
tuation may  be  corrected  until  the  end  of  the  first 
period.  This  ends  the  teaching  part  of  the  dictation 
lesson. 

2.  Testing  for  Mastery  of  Language  Fact  Taught. 
— In  the  following  period  a  selection  that  illustrates 
the  use  of  the  rule  for  direct  quotations  is  dictated 
to  the  class.  In  all  classes  below  the  seventh  year 
it  is  advisable  to  show  the  children  the  selection  the 
day  preceding  the  dictation.  True,  this  is  not  the 
mode  of  dictation  in  after  life,  but  the  child  in  the 
fourth  or  fifth  school  year  is  not  ready  for  the  direct 
dictation  of  the  commercial  world.  It  is  unwise  to 
force  the  child  to  commit  errors,  even  though  they 
are  all  corrected,  for  the  mind  may  carry  away  wrong 
forms.  We  must  constantly  guard  against  the  com- 
mission of  errors  by  forestalling  them.  Hence  in  the 
early  classes  children  are  shown  the  selection  and  at- 
tention is  directed  to  certain  spellings,  punctuations, 
capitalizations,  and  arrangements.  On  the  following 
day  the  selection  is  dictated.  For  the  lesson  taught 
above  an  appropriate  text  would  be  the  following : 

THE  DEATH  OF  WOLFE  AT  QUEBEC 

Wolfe,  weary  and  sick,  kept  constant  watch  during  the 
battle.  Suddenly,  he  fell,  fatally  wounded.  He  realized 
that  his  end  was  near.  As  he  lay  waiting  for  the  last 
moment,  he  heard,  "They  fly."  He  weakly  asked,  "Who 
fly?"  His  bodyguard  replied,  "The  enemy,  sir."  His  face 
seemed  to  brighten  as  he  mumbled,  "Then  thank  God,  I  die 
in  peace."  The  Angel  of  Death  then  claimed  him  for  his 
own. 

2OI 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

The  selection  is  first  read  as  a  whole  to  the  class 
and  then  is  dictated  by  pausing  regularly  at  the  end 
of  each  logical  or  grammatical  subdivision  in  each 
sentence.  No  greater  error  can  be  committed  in  dic- 
tation than  to  make  pauses  after  each  eighth  or  tenth 
word.  Such  a  procedure,  although  commonly  seen  in 
classrooms,  reduces  the  selection  to  an  arbitrary  suc- 
cession of  words  and  phrases  and  makes  rational 
punctuation  impossible. 

A  second  important  caution  is  never  to  repeat  after 
the  signal  has  been  given  for  the  class  to  write.  The 
teacher  should  therefore  insist  upon  absolute  atten- 
tion while  the  children  listen  to  the  dictation  of  the 
first  logical  part.  The  signal  is  then  given  and  all 
children  pick  up  pens  and  write.  No  hand  is  allowed 
to  be  raised  and  no  questions  should  be  permitted. 
When  a  reasonable  period  has  elapsed  a  signal  is  given 
for  work  to  stop,  the  class  comes  to  attention  and  the 
next  portion  is  dictated.  Under  no  circumstance 
should  the  teacher  dictate  while  some  children  are 
writing,  or  repeat  after  the  class  has  begun  to  write. 
The  violation  of  this  simple  dictum  courts  inattention 
or  confuses  those  who  are  trying  to  write.  Ability  to 
concentrate,  it  was  shown,  is  one  of  the  important 
ends  of  dictation  exercises.  When  the  entire  selection 
has  been  dictated  it  may  be  reread  as  a  whole,  but  this 
is  not  always  necessary  or  advisable.  Only  when 
the  sentences  are  long  and  the  punctuation  rather 
difficult  for  the  children  is  this  final  rereading  neces- 
sary. 

3.  The  Correction  of  the  Children's  Work. — The 
202 


DICTATION 

children  should  now  be  required  to  put  all  pens  and 
ink  away.  The  perfect  copy  is  shown  and  each  pupil 
corrects  his  own  product  with  ruler  and  pencil. 
Every  error  is  underlined  and  the  correction  is  written 
above  it.  As  in  the  correction  of  composition,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  have  every  type  of  error  marked  by 
proofreaders'  marks;  a  mere  underline  is  sufficient 
to  call  attention  to  an  error  that  needs  correction.  To 
discourage  efforts  at  spurious  corrections  and  to  en- 
courage exclusive  attention  to  correct  form,  a  differ- 
ent writing  medium  is  advocated  for  the  correction 
period.  If  dictations,  written  in  ink,  are  corrected  in 
ink,  children  spend  their  best  energies  in  devising 
ingenious  ways  of  changing  a  t  to  p,  a  small  s  to  a 
capital  S,  etc.,  thus  losing  the  benefit  inherent  in  all 
honest  self -correction.  Every  incentive  for  thorough 
correction  should  be  given.  Children  should  exchange 
papers  with  their  neighbors,  who  will  help  them  to 
discover  errors  that  were  passed  over.  It  should  be 
explained  that  errors  neatly  corrected  will  be  counted 
only  half  a  mark,  but  errors  overlooked  will  count 
doubly  against  a  pupil.  By  these  means — of  course, 
petty  devices — children  are  made  to  feel  that  careful 
correction  is  worth  their  best  endeavors. 

The  rewriting  of  the  dictation  in  absolutely  cor- 
rect form  is  a  disputed  procedure.  The  arguments 
offered  by  the  disputants  are  precisely  those  listed  in 
the  debate  for  the  rewriting  of  compositions  and  need 
not  be  repeated  here.  Most  supervisors  agree  that  if 
errors  are  carefully  and  intelligently  corrected,  the 
child  will  learn  more  from  additional  dictation  les- 

203 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

sons  than  from  mere  rewriting  of  selections  already 
dictated. 

Further  Test  and  Drill. — It  is  evident  that  no  new 
fact  need  be  taught  for  weeks.  Each  succeeding  dic- 
tation lesson  may  consist  of  further  test  and  correc- 
tion, until  the  law  of  punctuation  is  applied  by  the 
children  automatically.  In  teaching  the  correct  use 
of  quotation  marks  it  is  necessary  to  grade  the  topic 
by  successive  steps  of  difficulty.  The  child  who  can 
write  the  selection,  "The  Death  of  Wolfe  at  Quebec," 
may  not  be  able  to  punctuate  a  sentence  of  the  type, 
"Then  I  die  in  peace,"  he  said,  "for  I  have  captured 
Quebec."  The  "broken  quotation"  must  then  be 
in  a  separate  lesson.  But  thus  far  we  have  not  con- 
sidered long  quotations  extending  over  two  or  three 
paragraphs ;  here  the  punctuation  and  the  arrangement 
are  different  and  must  be  taught  at  a  later  time.  In 
lessons  on  the  comma,  the  semicolon,  capitalization, 
the  need  for  gradation  is  even  more  urgent  because  the 
topics  are  wider  in  scope. 

The  procedure  for  dictation  lessons  has  thus  far 
neglected  the  drill  in  unprepared  dictation  necessary 
in  commercial  life.  Beginning  with  the  sixth  year 
occasional  periods  should  be  set  aside  for  the  dictation 
of  text  not  seen  by  the  class  before  the  lesson  and  dic- 
tated without  the  nicety  of  logical  pauses  and  succes- 
sive signals  for  attention  and  writing.  With  the  ad- 
vancing grades  this  unprepared  dictation  should  be 
given  with  greater  frequency  until  the  children  be- 
come accustomed  to  the  form  of  dictation  heard  in 
the  business  world. 

204 


DICTATION 


SUGGESTED  READING 

ARNOLD,  E.    Special  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  131- 

136.    S.  Mandel,  27  St.  Nicholas  Place,  N.  Y. 
CRONSON,  B.    Graded  Dictation  and  Spelling  Lessons. 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
GOLDWASSER,    I.    E.      Method   and   Methods   in   the 

Teaching  of  English,  chap.  XIII.     D.  C.  Heath 

&Co. 
RICHMAN,  JULIA.    Graded  Works  in  Dictation  for  All 

Grades.    School  Work,  Vol.  Ill,  Nos.  i  and  2. 
VAN  WAGENEN,  KATE.    Dictation  Day  by  Day.    The 

Macmillan  Co. 


CHAPTER    XII 

MEMORY    GEMS:    MEMORIZATION   AND 
RECITATION 

Value  of  Memory  Gems. — Memorization  and  recita- 
tion of  standard  prose  and  poetical  selections  have 
always  been  an  essential  part  of  every  child's  lin- 
guistic education.  They  are  the  means  that  are  used 
in  all  stages  of  the  child's  development,  from  the 
"School  of  the  Mother's  Knee"  through  the  high- 
school  course.  Their  values  are  many  and  far-reach- 
ing, and  can  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  Memorizing  the  gems  of  literature  is  a  means 
of   enriching  the   child's   limited   expressional   stock. 
New  words,  strong  phrases,  traditional  allusions,  and 
classical  expressions  are  acquired  through  a  context 
that   helps   to   give   them   both   richer   meaning   and 
greater  retention. 

2.  The  mere  knowledge  of  the  literary  gems  that 
are  memorized  is  an  acquisition  that  is  worth  while 
for  its  own  sake.     We  must  acquaint  the  child  in  an 
informal  way  with  his  literary  heritage. 

3.  Memorization  of  literary  gems  gives  children  a 
permanent  possession  of   sentiments  deep  in  ethical 
significance  and  rich  in  poetic  charm,  which  grow  in 
meaning  and  beauty  with  the  ever-widening  experi- 

206 


MEMORY  GEMS:    MEMORY  AND  RECITATION 

ence  of  life.  "The  Chambered  Nautilus"  which  at- 
tracted us  in  youth  by  its  rich  imagery  is  now  a  sym- 
bol of  the  moral  urge  that  is  prompted  by  a  growing 
soul.  "As  the  swift  seasons  roll"  the  poem  glows 
richer  and  more  beautiful  in  its  symbolism. 

4.  But  aside  from  the  content  aspect  of  these  lit- 
erary possessions,  the  child  is  becoming  familiar  with 
language  structure  that  serves  as  a  model  for  his  own 
modes  of  expression.     The  child  may  not  consciously 
set  himself  to  imitate  the   selections  he  memorizes, 
but  they  nevertheless  have  a  deep  and  subtle  influence 
on  his  linguistic  development. 

5.  The  recitation  of  the  memorized  literary  gems 
affords  the  teacher  an  excellent  means  of  training  his 
pupils  in  correct  enunciation,  clear  articulation,  cor- 
rect voice  control  and  modulation. 

6.  Another    important    gain   that    follows    in    the 
wake  of   dramatized  recitation  of  memorized  selec- 
tions is  increased  confidence  and  more  graceful  self- 
expression.     These  values  give  the  memory  gem  les- 
son a  definite  and  undisputed  place  in  every  curricu- 
lum of  English. 

The  Selection  of  the  Memory  Gem.--The  standard  of 
selection  must  be  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the 
child's  conception  of  delightful  literature.  What  is 
artistic  and  literary  to  us  may  awake  no  response 
from  the  child.  Not  the  mature  conception  of  the 
teacher,  but  the  growing,  aspiring  conception  of  the 
child  should  determine  what  will  be  selected  from  our 
vast  literary  storehouse.  The  poem,  "I  Live  for  Those 
Who  Love  Me,"  expresses  the  basic  tenet  of  Christi- 

207 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

anity.  But  to  require  children  in  the  third  year  of 
the  elementary  school  course  to  mouth  it  and  to 
pledge  themselves  to  "live  for  the  cause  that  needs 
assistance"  and  "for  the  wrongs  that  lack  resistance," 
is  a  procedure  that  borders  on  the  ludicrous.  Gray's 
"Elegy  in  a  Country  Church  Yard"  highly  merits  its 
place  of  honor  in  most  carefully  selected  anthologies, 
but  its  recognized  literary  merit  does  not  necessarily 
make  it  appropriate  for  an  elementary  school  child. 
A  forced  study  of  what  is  above  the  child's  artistic 
power  of  appreciation  may  undermine  the  child's  in- 
terest in  all  literary  form.  But,  it  has  been  asked, 
will  not  this  standard  lead  to  the  memorization  of 
the  commonplace  in  our  language  ?  There  is  no  cause 
for  alarm  because  it  is  not  proposed  to  invite  imma- 
ture and  unread  children  to  select  the  content  of  their 
literary  course.  The  standard  formulated  merely  sug- 
gests that  mature  and  widely  read  teachers  and  su- 
pervisors select  from  the  rich  literary  sources  those 
gems  whose  emotional  and  artistic  appeals  are  so  uni- 
versal that  even  the  developing  child  can  respond  to 
them,  can  feel  their  thrill  and  grow  under  their  in- 
fluence. 

Motivating  the  Memory  Gems. — The  memorization  of 
a  literary  gem  should  proceed  from  the  children's 
desire  to  count  it  among  their  possessions.  The  dis- 
cussion of  the  values  of  memorizing  literary  selections 
sums  up  the  teacher's  reasons  for  making  this  type 
of  language  exercise  a  vital  part  of  the  English  course. 
But  they  do  not  necessarily  evoke  in  the  child  a  de- 
sire to  memorize  any  selection.  The  problem  that 

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MEMORY  GEMS:    MEMORY  AND  RECITATION 

confronts  the  teacher  in  teaching  the  memory  gem  is 
how  to  motivate  it  for  the  children. 

The  problem  of  motivation  may  be  solved  by  using 
the  selection  as  the  text  for  an  intensive,  apprecia- 
tive reading  lesson.  Through  the  entire  period  the 
teacher  must  aim  to  bring  within  the  children's  sphere 
of  appreciation  all  the  elements  that  make  the  literary 
gem  beautiful  and  rich  in  poetic  imagery.  At  the 
end  of  the  lesson  the  teacher  must  try  to  ascertain 
whether  the  selection  was  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
pupils.  If  they  caught  the  message  and  feel  its  spirit, 
the  memorization  can  be  based  on  real  motive;  if, 
for  some  reason,  the  selection  proved  uninspiring,  it 
should  not  be  forced  upon  them. 

Let  us  assume  that  the  class  responded  to  the  ap- 
peal of  the  literary  gem.  Children  are  called  upon 
to  dramatize  it.  The  most  enthusiastic  volunteers 
are  called  upon.  They  eagerly  come  before  the  class, 
and  with  eyes  on  the  page  proceed  with  the  drama- 
tization. When  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  dramati- 
zation is  a  failure,  the  teacher  asks  the  children  to 
account  for  the  result  and  elicits  that  unless  the  selec- 
tion is  known  "by  heart"  its  proper  rendition  is  im- 
possible. Here,  then,  is  the  motive  for  the  memoriza- 
tion. The  desire  to  recite  the  selection  to  the  assem- 
bled school,  an  eagerness  to  possess  what  is  beautiful 
and  inspiring,  and  the  preparation  for  a  recitation  con- 
test may  serve  as  added  motives  which  reduce  the  tedi- 
um involved  in  memorization  exercises. 

Procedure  in  Memorizing  Literary  Gems. — i.  Sym- 
pathetic Comprehension  of  the  Selection. — It  was  sug- 

209 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

gested  that  the  literary  selection  that  is  to  be  mem- 
orized should  first  be  used  as  a  text  for  an  intensive 
reading  lesson.  In  this  appreciative  reading  the  chil- 
dren feel  the  message  of  the  selection,  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  development  of  the  central  theme,  and 
learn  the  meaning  of  new  words,  phrases,  and  al- 
lusions. With  this  basis  of  literary  appreciation,  the 
teacher  is  assured  of  a  sympathetic  comprehension  by 
the  class  and  a  motive  for  memorization. 

2.  Tracing  the  Sequence  of  Ideas. — The  second 
step  preparatory  to  the  memory  appeal  is  to  lead  the 
children  to  trace  the  sequence  of  ideas  in  the  selection 
studied.  Let  us  assume  that  Kingsley's  "Three  Fish- 
ers" is  to  be  memorized. 

THE  THREE  FISHERS 

Three  fishers  went  sailing  away  to  the  West, 
Away  to  the  West  as  the  sun  went  down; 

Each  thought  of  the  woman  who  loved  him  the  best, 
And  the  children  stood  watching  them  out  of  town; 
For  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep, 
And  there's  little  to  earn,  and  many  to  keep, 
Though  the  harbour  bar  be  moaning. 

Three  wives  sat  up  in  the  lighthouse  tower, 

And  they  trimmed  the  lamps  as  the  sun  went  down; 

They  looked  at  the  squall,  and  they  looked  at  the  shower, 
And  the  night-rack  came  rolling  up  ragged  and  brown. 
But  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep, 
Though  storms  be  sudden,  and  waters  deep, 
And  the  harbour  bar  be  moaning. 

Three  corpses  lay  out  on  the  shining  sands 
In  the  morning  gleam  as  the  tide  went  down, 

2IO 


MEMORY  GEMS:    MEMORY  AND  RECITATION 

And  the  women  are  weeping  and  wringing  their  hands 
For  those  who  will  never  come  home  to  the  town; 
For  men  must  work,   and  women  must  weep, 
And  the  sooner  it's  over,  the  sooner  to  sleep; 
And  good-bye  to  the  bar  and  its  moaning. 

The  successive  thoughts  of  the  first  stanza  analyzed 
by  a  sixth-year  pupil  were  listed  as  follows:  Three 
fishermen  sail  away;  they  sail  to  the  west  as  the  sun 
goes  down;  each  thinks  of  his  wife;  their  children 
watch  them;  men  must  work,  women  must  be  sad 
when  little  is  earned  and  many  must  be  supported; 
poor  fishermen  must  go  even  if  it  looks  dangerous. 
These  ideas  are  now  committed  to  memory  with  little 
effort  because  the  entire  thought  is  evolved  most  nat- 
urally and  logically. 

The  values  of  memorizing  the  sequence  of  ideas 
in  their  natural  order  are  many.  First,  it  simplifies 
the  memorization  of  the  poet's  words;  each  thought 
prompts  its  appropriate  expression,  and  with  little 
effort  a  verbatim  reproduction  is  achieved.  Second, 
it  tends  to  make  recall  rational  rather  than  verbal. 
Study  the  strained  face  of  the  child  who  recites  a 
memorized  selection;  the  steady  stare  and  the  nerv- 
ous anxiety  give  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  child 
is  focalizing  all  conscious  effort  on  the  next  line  or 
the  next  word.  The  recitation  is  a  verbal  reproduc- 
tion, 'not  a  reconstruction,  thought  by  thought,  of  a 
real  situation.  When  these  children  err,  they  say 
what  is  absolutely  devoid  of  meaning.  But  when  the 
child  learns  first  the  sequence  of  the  ideas  and  then 
the  poet's  phraseology,  he  recites  a  series  of  thoughts, 

211 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

he  thinks  constantly  of  the  next  idea,  and  when  he 
errs  he  substitutes  his  own  clumsy  wording  which 
expresses  the  idea  in  mind  in  a  less  elegant  form. 
A  third  value  of  such  a  procedure  is  that  it  trains 
children  in  systematic  and  sustained  thinking. 

3.  Thought  Questions  Answered  in  the  Words  of 
the  Author. — When  the  children  have  acquired  the 
"thought-skeleton,"  each  idea  should  be  subjected  to 
a  thought  question,  which  should  be  answered  by  the 
children  in  the  words  of  the  text  to  be  memorized. 
As  illustrative  of  this  phase  of  the  lesson,  we  may 
submit  the  following  reproduction  of  questions  and 
answers,  the  part  of  the  answer  in  italics  recited  with 
emphasis  by  the  children: 

Teacher:     How  many  fishers  left  for  the  trip? 

Pupil:  Three;  three  fishers  went  sailing  away  to 
the  west. 

Teacher:    In  what  direction  did  they  sail? 

Pupil:  Toward  the  west;  three  fishers  went  sail- 
ing away  to  the  west. 

Teacher:    What  time  of  day  was  it? 

Pupil :  Twilight ;  away  to  the  west  as  the  sun  went 
down. 

Teacher:    Who  was  in  the  thoughts  of  these  men? 

Pupil:  Their  wives;  each  thought  of  the  woman 
who  loved  him  the  best. 

Teacher :  What  did  these  women  feel  toward  these 
men? 

Pupil:  They  loved  them;  each  thought  of  the 
woman  who  loved  him  the  best. 

Teacher:    Who  were  interested  spectators? 
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"  MEMORY  GEMS :    MEMORY  AND  RECITATION 

Pupil:  Their  children;  and  the  children  stood 
watching  them  out  of  town,  etc. 

After  these  specific  questions  are  asked,  a  series  of 
general  problems  are  formulated  which  necessitate 
the  reading  of  that  portion  of  the  selection  which  is 
to  be  memorized.  The  teacher  now  requests :  "Read  the 
line  that  gives  the  saddest  picture;  the  happiest  pic- 
ture. Read  the  line  that  tells  most  about  the  danger- 
ous character  of  the  work  of  these  men.  What  line  is 
most  beautiful;  least  beautiful?  Read  these.  What 
line  gives  a  hint  of  the  end  of  the  trip?  Read  the 
line  that  is  hardest  to  remember;  easiest  to  remem- 
ber. What  line  tells  most  about  the  homes  of  these 
men?'*  These  are  only  a  few  of  many  questions  that 
can  be  formulated  to  serve  as  a  pretext  for  making 
children  read  and  reread  the  stanza  that  is  to  be 
committed  to  memory.  Let  the  teacher  now  call  for 
volunteers  and  note  how  large  a  part  of  her  class  is 
ready  to  recite  the  stanza  that  was  studied. 

Retention  Through  Thought  Rather  than  Through 
Memory  Appeal. — Throughout  this  lesson  the  aim  was 
to  avoid  an  appeal  to  verbal  memory.  In  "memory- 
gem"  lessons  one  hears  the  teacher's  commands,  "Re- 
cite the  first  sentence.  Say  it  five  times.  Recite  the  sec- 
ond sentence.  Say  it  five  times.  Recite  the  first  and 
the  second  sentences  three  times,  etc."  At  times  the 
sentence  is  not  made  the  unit  of  reiteration,  for  the 
teacher  requires  the  children  to  repeat  the  first  line,  the 
second  line,  the  first  two  lines,  the  third  line,  the  first 
three  lines,  etc.  What  wonder  that  most  children  feel 
that  the  term  gem  is  a  misnomer  in  these  lessons,  for 

213 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

the  adjective  memory  overshadows  its  noun.  The 
procedure  that  was  suggested  aims  to  produce  per- 
manent retention  through  thought  rather  than  through 
mechanical  repetition,  through  a  method  that  stimu- 
lates self -activity  rather  than  one  that  dulls  the  mind 
by  its  monotony,  through  devices  that  set  problems 
before  the  class  rather  than  incessant  drill. 

Aids  to  Memorization. — But  not  all  children  can 
memorize  by  a  method  that  makes  an  exclusive 
thought  appeal.  Minds  that  are  unimpressionable 
must  have  auxiliary  appeals  that  are  more  mechani- 
cal in  their  nature.  Among  these  aids  to  memoriza- 
tion are:  (i)  Verbal  repetition;  (2)  singing  the  music 
that  may  have  been  composed  for  the  selection;  (3) 
pointing  out  the  rhymes  supplies  additional  auditory 
associations;  (4)  emphasizing  the  rhythm  or  the  lilt 
is,  at  times,  almost  as  effective  as  the  music  ac- 
companying a  poem;  (5)  multiple  sense  appeal,  in 
which  an  effort  is  made  to  have  the  selection  heard, 
seen,  acted,  and  written  by  way  of  providing  for  audi- 
tory-, visual-,  and  motor-minded  children. 

The  Recitation. — Few  lessons  are  as  uninspirational 
and  devoid  of  social  spirit  as  the  recitations  of  mem- 
orized selections  that  one  hears  in  a  round  of  visits  to 
schools.  Child  after  child  is  called  upon  to  recite  in 
rapid  succession  to  prove  to  the  teacher  that  he  has 
perfect  mastery  of  the  correct  sequence  of  words. 
The  auditors  listen  listlessly  and  hold  themselves  in 
readiness  to  correct  the  child  who  recites,  or  to  con- 
tinue, should  the  poor  victim  become  confused  and 
unable  to  proceed  to  the  end.  These  recitations  must 

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MEMORY  GEMS:    MEMORY  AND  RECITATION 

be  enlivened  by  a  rational  purpose  and  a  social  spirit. 
Every  opportunity  for  dramatization  should  be  util- 
ized by  the  teacher.  The  child  who  recites  should  be 
made  to  feel  that  his  classmates  are  anxious  to  hear 
his  rendition,  to  see  his  dramatization,  and  to  compare 
his  interpretation  with  theirs.  The  teacher  must  not 
exaggerate  her  position;  she  must  strive  to  make  the 
child  feel  that  she  is  only  one  member  of  the  child's 
audience.  When  a  pupil's  recitation  is  ended,  his 
classmates  should  be  called  upon  to  comment  on  the 
clearness  of  speech,  the  accuracy  of  pronunciation,  the 
naturalness  of  the  rendition,  and  the  grace  of  the 
dramatization.  The  teacher  should  be  as  insistent  on 
eliciting  favorable  criticism  as  unfavorable,  when  it 
is  merited.  After  every  child  has  recited,  the  pupils 
should  decide  the  relative  merits  of  their  classmates' 
recitations  and  should  elect  that  child  or  those  chil- 
dren who  will  represent  them  in  the  "assembly  exer- 
cises" or  who  will  be  sent  to  other  classrooms  when 
classes  exchange  recitations.  The  oral  recitation 
should  never  descend  to  the  dispirited  level  of  a  test. 
If  the  teacher  is  anxious  to  secure  a  mark  for  each 
pupil  in  these  exercises,  she  should  ask  the  children  to 
write  out  the  selection  and  then  rate  them  according 
to  a  uniform  scale. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

GOLDWASSER,  I.  E.  Method  and  Methods  in  the 
Teaching  of  English,  chap.  XL  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Co. 

215 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

HALIBURTON  and  SMITH.  Teaching  Poetry  in  the 
Grades.  Houghton-Mifflin  Co. 

Hosic,  JAMES  F.  Elementary  Course  in  English.  All 
chapters  for  suggestions  for  material.  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 

KLAPPER,  PAUL.  Teaching  Children  to  Read,  chap. 
VII.  Bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  con- 
tains suggestions  for  material. 


CHAPTER   XIII 
THE  VALUES   OF   FORMAL   GRAMMAR 

The  Disputed  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Modern  Curricu- 
lum— Progressive  teachers  of  English  hold  divergent 
and  almost  irreconcilable  views  on  the  place,  the  func- 
tions, and  the  ultimate  worth  of  grammar  as  a  sub- 
ject in  the  elementary  school  curriculum.  The  camp 
is  divided  into  three  factions.  The  first  justifies  the 
traditional  emphasis  on  formal  grammar  with  its  ter- 
minology, classifications,  rules  of  syntax  and  analysis 
— all  to  be  taught  in  separate  periods  with  as  much 
correlation  as  can  naturally  be  introduced.  The  sec- 
ond group  insists  that  formal  grammar  must  be  elim- 
inated and  the  necessary  laws  of  language  be  taught 
through  the  correction  of  errors  that  children  make 
in  their  written  and  oral  speech.  The  third  view  on 
the  teaching  of  grammar  is  a  compromise:  it  admits 
the  futility  of  formal  grammar  that  is  taught  as  the 
scientific  analysis  of  speech,  but  it  has  faith  in  the 
teaching  of  those  facts  of  grammar  that  can  be  re- 
lated to  the  child's  needs.  This  last  school  would 
teach  grammar  as  part  of  the  course  in  composition; 
would  have  every  lesson  in  grammar  arise  in  errors 
committed  by  members  of  the  class;  would  eliminate 
all  those  elements  of  formal  grammar  that  cannot  be 

217 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

applied  directly  by  the  child  in  the  process  of  improv- 
ing speech;  and  would  teach  grammar  incidentally, 
not  in  set  periods.  The  reaction  to  formal  grammar  is 
not  a  temporary  attitude  accompanying  changing  con- 
ceptions in  teaching;  it  is  a  vigorous  protest  against 
abuses  that  have  characterized  most  of  the  teaching 
of  grammar. 

Grammar  a  Discredited  Subject — The  indictments 
brought  against  current  procedures  in  the  teaching  of 
grammar  are  many  and  grave. 

1.  The  old  boast,  "Grammar  teaches  how  to  write 
and  speak  a  language  correctly,"  has  been  disproven, 
not  only  by  practical  results  observed  in  actual  teach- 
ing but  by  a  deeper  analysis  of  the  relation  that  ex- 
ists between  speech  and  grammar.    Every  teacher  can 
bring  evidence  to  prove  that  proficiency  in  grammar  is 
no  guarantee  of  equal  or  approximate  proficiency  in 
composition,  and  vice  versa.     A  child,  whose  compo- 
sitions leave  little  to  be  desired,  may  score  a  failure  in 
grammar,  while  his  neighbor,  well  versed  in  the  in- 
tricacies of  verbal  forms  and  the  rules  of  agreement 
in  grammar,  may  write  English  that  is  devoid  of  all 
application  of  this  technical  knowledge.     Exercises  in 
grammar  are  essentially  analytic;  exercises  in  com- 
position are  creative  and  essentially  synthetic;  there- 
fore, ability  in  one  of  these  forms  of  language  study 
is  not  necessarily  carried  over  to  the  other. 

2.  In  most  classrooms,  there  is  little  or  no  rela- 
tion between  the  courses  in  grammar  and  in  compo- 
sition for  a  given  term.     In  schools  organized  on  a 
departmental  schedule  in  the  last  two  or  three  years 

218 


THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR 

it  is  usual  to  assign  the  teaching  of  grammar  to  one 
teacher  and  the  teaching  of  composition  to  another. 
These  teachers  proceed  independently,  the  one  teach- 
ing children  the  nominative  absolute,  the  other  strug- 
gling with  the  class  in  the  hope  of  breaking  the  habit 
of  using  dependent  clauses  for  complete  sentences.  It 
is  advisable  to  assign  to  one  teacher  all  the  subjects 
that  are  grouped  under  the  head  of  English,  so  that 
every  natural  correlation  will  be  introduced  and  thus 
the  work  will  be  given  a  unity  of  aim  which  it  will 
otherwise  lack. 

3.  Grammar  as  outlined  in  many  courses  of  study 
and  in  textbooks  written  for  elementary  schools 
abounds  in  sterile  verbal  subtleties.  Thus,  the  child  is 
taught  to  keep  gerund  and  gerundive  apart.  The  word 
sailing  in  the  sentence,  "Sailing  a  boat  is  great  sport," 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  word  sailing  in,  "The 
sailing  of  the  ship  was  scheduled  for  midnight." 
True,  the  one  word  has  an  element  of  action  in  it, 
while  the  other  has  not;  the  one  word  cannot  be  in- 
troduced by  the  article  the,  while  the  other  can;  but 
when  all  these  distinctions  are  noted  and  the  proper 
names  applied,  in  what  vital  way  has  the  child's  speech 
been  affected?  The  dative  object  and  the  direct  object 
are  now  taught  in  many  schools.  This  terminology  is 
absolutely  essential  in  language  like  German  and 
Latin,  but  in  English  it  serves  only  to  multiply  un- 
necessary classification.  What  is  gained  by  calling 
hat  the  direct  object  and  me  the  dative  object  in  the 
sentence,  "John  gave  me  the  hat"?  The  old  form, 
"objective  case,"  answers  the  purpose  because  in  Eng- 

219 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

ilsh  there  is  no  difference  in  the  form  of  words  in  the 
accusative  or  in  the  dative  case.  Such  an  unwarranted 
increase  in  terminology  reduces  grammar  to  a  sterile 
study  of  formalism  in  language. 

4.  The  prevailing  method  of  teaching  grammar  is 
another  cause  of  the  discredit  which  has  been  cast 
upon  the  subject.    In  the  teacher's  endeavors  to  have 
children  master  an  ever-increasing  terminology  and 
ever-growing  classification,  memory  drills  are  greatly 
emphasized.     Recitations  are  given  over  exclusively 
to  reciting  set  classifications,  stereotyped  definitions, 
formal  rules  and  memorized  lists.     Grammar  is  still  a 
memory  subject  rather  than  a  rational  study,  for  the 
din  of  monotonous  repetitions  of  I,  my  or  mine,  me, 
we,  our  or  ours,  us,  or  of  /  love,  you  love,  he  or  she 
loves,  we  love,  you  love,  they  love,  etc.,  is  still  to  be 
heard  in  most  schools.    It  seems  that  we  have  not  yet 
learned  that  mastery  of  elements,  isolated  in  an  arbi- 
trary list,  is  no  guarantee  of  ability  to  use  these  very 
forms  in  natural  context. 

5.  Another  very  serious  criticism  that  must  be 
urged  against  current  courses  in  grammar  is  the  undue 
variety  of  terminology.     The  market  is  flooded  with 
a  variety  of  books  that  find  their  way  into  the  school. 
Most  of  these  books  repeat  the  same  limitations  and 
abuses,  but  each  one  of  them  justifies  its  appearance 
by  a  new  system  of  names  for  the  various  elements 
in  grammar.     No  attempt  is  made  to  reach  any  degree 
of  uniformity  in  the  terminology;  each  book  insists 
on  its  own  system,  and  each  author  is  a  law  unto  him- 
self.   What  is  the  inevitable  result  ?    Different  schools 

220 


THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR 

use  different  books,  and  even  the  various  classes  in 
one  school  frequently  do  not  use  the  same  series  of 
books.  The  pupils  become  hopelessly  confused  by  the 
array  of  imposing  terms.  As  the  children  pass  from 
one  school  to  another  and  from  one  class  to  another, 
they  find  the  new  teacher  using  a  terminology  un- 
known to  them.  What  wonder  that  children  leave 
school  ignorant  of  the  basic  terms  in  grammar! 

An  illustration  of  the  extent  of  this  variety  of  ter- 
minology will  at  once  show  the  gravity  of  the  situa- 
tion. A  recent  writer  collected  in  a  comparative  table 
the  terms  used  by  our  leading  textbooks  for  common 
grammatical  elements.  The  results  as  tabulated  are 
given  below  in  slightly  modified  form.  The  writer 
listed  ten  books  that  are  in  use  in  schools  to-day.  For 
purposes  of  comparison  he  selected  five  fundamental 
uses  of  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  predicate,  viz., 
(a)  good,  in  the  sentence,  "He  is  good";  (b)  John,  in 
"This  is  John";  (c)  him,  in  "I  know  him";  (d)  red, 
in  "We  painted  our  barn  red";  (e)  me,  in  "He  gave 
me  the  book."  The  Roman  numbers  in  the  table  rep- 
resent these  five  elements  in  the  order  named;  under 
each  is  listed  the  various  terms  applied  by  textbooks 
used  in  classes  to-day.  The  disagreement  in  the  no- 
menclature that  exists  for  predicate  constructions  is 
typical  of  the  general  confusion  found  in  grammatical 
terminology. 

What  is  the  immediate  problem  that  confronts  us 
in  the  teaching  of  grammar  ?  Out  of  this  chaos  there 
must  be  evolved  a  simplified  and  uniform  nomencla- 
ture that  will  be  used  at  least  in  an  entire  city  school 

221 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 


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222 


THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR 

system.  In  New  York  City  the  Board  of  Associate 
Superintendents  evolved  such  a  uniform  terminology. 
But  the  textbooks  placed  in  the  children's  hands  have 
a  nomenclature  that  does  not  agree  with  the  one  that 
is  taught  the  children,  and  thus  confusion  is  not  en- 
tirely obviated.  It  is  necessary  to  have  special  edi- 
tions of  textbooks  for  the  city,  if  the  children  are  to 
derive  the  benefits  that  come  from  using  a  book  in 
studying  grammar. 

We  have  seen  that  these  indictments  against  the 
teaching  of  grammar  are  serious  and  true,  but  they  do 
not  disclose  weaknesses  inherent  in  the  subject  itself, 
or  any  defects  that  cannot  be  remedied.  Proper  or- 
ganization of  the  course  of  study  and  a  more  peda- 
gogical teaching  procedure  will  remove  these  abuses 
in  the  teaching  of  grammar.  We  must  turn  therefore 
to  a  consideration  of  the  values  of  grammar  as  an 
elementary  school  study  and  the  principles  governing 
the  methods  of  teaching  the  subject. 

Values  of  Grammar. — A  definite  formulation  of  the 
values  of  grammar  will  set  up  for  us  definite  aims 
that  must  be  achieved  in  the  teaching  of  the  subject. 
The  aims  become  standards,  in  terms  of  which  we 
judge  the  efficiency  of  our  methods  of  teaching  and 
the  wisdom  of  the  course  of  study  that  is  to  be  taught. 
The  values  of  grammar  can  be  grouped  under  five 
heads,  viz.,  the  practical,  the  disciplinary,  the  literary, 
the  cultural,  and  the  preparatory  values. 

i.  The  Practical  Value  of  Grammar:  A  Guide  to 
Correct  Speech. — An  investigation  into  the  reasons 
why  teachers  and  principals  believe  that  grammar 

223 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

should  be  taught  showed  that  the  first  justification 
was  that  "grammar  is  a  guide  to  correct  speech."  But 
we  must  not  read  too  much  into  this  function  of  gram- 
mar. It  was  pointed  out  in  a  previous  connection  that 
a  knowledge  of  grammar  does  not  guarantee  correct 
speech.  Grammar  is  the  science  of  language,  and 
serves  as  an  aid  in  correct  speech  in  the  same  way  as 
the  knowledge  of  the  science  of  any  medium  of  ex- 
pression serves  the  art  of  expression.  A  knowledge 
of  logic  does  not  guarantee  logical  thought,  but  it  does 
give  the  student  a  means  of  detecting  logical  fallacies 
and  a  standard  in  terms  of  which  he  can  judge  the 
results  of  his  own  thinking.  So,  too,  grammar  teaches 
us  not  to  speak  English  correctly,  but  to  understand  it. 

The  teaching  of  grammar  is  justified  only  when 
children  learn  to  use  it  for  purposes  of  self-criticism 
and  correction.  Thus,  the  child  who  learns  the  func- 
tions of  verbs  and  participles  may  still  write  in  his 
composition  "When  he  seen  what  I  done,"  but  in  the 
period  of  correction  he  underlines  seen  and  done  and 
uses  verb  forms.  The  wise  teaching  of  grammar  seeks 
to  make  correction  of  all  speech,  not  arbitrary  changes 
according  to  the  dictates  of  the  teacher,  but  an  intelli- 
gent process  of  self-criticism. 

2.  The  Disciplinary  Values  of  Grammar. — Prop- 
erly taught,  grammar  is  a  means  of  developing  pow- 
ers of  concentration,  reason,  abstraction,  and  analysis 
in  verbal  relationships.  Grammar  has  been  called 
the  logic  of  elementary  education.  Laurie  tells  us, 
"Grammar  is  logic  in  the  concrete  and  language  in 
the  abstract.  .  .  .  The  boy  who  is  intelligently  ana- 

224 


THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR 

lyzing  in  grammar  is  intelligently  analyzing  the  proc- 
ess of  thought,  and  is  a  logician  without  knowing  it." 
Max  Miiller  expresses  the  disciplinary  value  of  gram- 
mar as  follows :  "Grammar  is  logic  of  speech  even  as 
logic  is  the  grammar  of  reason." 

A  few  illustrations  will  readily  show  that  the  dis- 
ciplinary value  of  grammar  is  not  overstated.  The 
reason,  the  concentration,  and  the  analysis  required 
of  a  school  child  in  perceiving  the  differences  between 
"He  was  gone  an  hour"  and  "He  has  been  gone  an 
hour,"  "I  want  him"  and  "I  want  him  to  be  a  soldier," 
are  as  intense  as  the  mental  activity  of  the  college  stu- 
dent who  distinguishes  extension  from  intension  in 
logic  or  perception  from  conception  in  psychology. 

Cautions  in  Seeking  the  Disciplinary  Value  of 
Grammar. — Potent  as  the  disciplinary  value  of  gram- 
mar is,  we  must  nevertheless  remember  that  the  men- 
tal power  developed  in  this  subject  can  be  applied  only 
to  verbal  relations.  The  powers  of  analysis  and  dis- 
crimination developed  in  grammar  will  undoubtedly 
be  of  service  to  the  student  in  his  study  of  rhetoric  or 
the  grammar  of  foreign  languages,  but  of  little  or  no 
direct  help  in  studies  and  experience  markedly  differ- 
ent from  the  verbal  relations  of  grammar.  This  is 
true  of  all  mental  habits,  for  a  mode  of  mental  activity 
developed  in  one  experience  is  transferred  to  other  ex- 
periences in  direct  proportion  to  their  similarity.  The 
limited  value  of  the  mental  power  developed  in  gram- 
mar proves  conclusively  that  no  topic  in  grammar 
must  be  taught  for  its  disciplinary  value  alone.  Teach- 
ers and  textbook  writers  often  teach  in  grammar  what 

225 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

has  no  practical  worth  and  justify  themselves  on  pure- 
ly disciplinary  grounds.  If  the  fact  of  grammar  has 
no  social  use,  it  merits  no  place  in  class  studies.  A 
fact,  aside  from  its  use,  has  no  value.  Hair-splitting 
differences  and  nice  verbal  distinctions  develop 
thought  for  more  verbal  puzzles.  The  disciplinary 
values  of  grammar  must  be  achieved  through  the 
teaching  of  topics  that  can  be  used  by  the  child  in  the 
correction  of  his  speech  and  that  have,  therefore,  so- 
cial worth. 

3.  Grammar  as  an  Aid  in  Literary  Interpretation. 
— It  has  often  been  asserted  by  the  sponsors  for  for- 
mal grammar  that  a  knowledge  of  grammatical  ele- 
ments and  functions  is  of  great  aid  in  literary  inter- 
pretation and  expressive  reading.  In  the  sentence, 
"That  book  that  you  saw  belongs  to  me,"  the  relative 
emphasis  on  each  that  and  the  correct  phrasing  may 
prove  perplexing  to  the  young  mind.  But  the  recog- 
nition of  the  grammatical  function  of  each  "that" 
indicates  clearly  that  the  demonstrative  adjective  and 
not  the  relative  pronoun  should  be  stressed  in  reading ; 
the  feeling  for  the  clause  which  comes  from  a  study  of 
grammar  prompts  correct  phrasing.  Similarly,  pas- 
sages are  encountered  in  all  reading  where  thought  is 
not  clear  because  the  grammatical  relations  or  func- 
tions of  certain  phrases  and  clauses  are  not  perceived. 

This  belief,  firmly  rooted  in  many  minds,  that  a 
knowledge  of  grammar  is  a  direct  aid  in  literary  in- 
terpretation, was  subjected  to  a  test  by  F.  S.  Hoyt. 
The  results  of  examinations  given  in  composition, 
grammar,  and  literary  interpretation  were  tabulated  in 

226 


THE  VALUES  OF  FORMAL  GRAMMAR 

comparative  lists.  They  prove  that  proficiency  in  any 
one  of  these  three  branches  of  the  study  of  English 
is  no  index  of  the  proficiency  that  will  be  attained  in 
the  other  two.  A  cursory  and  superficial  analysis  of 
the  marks  of  any  class  in  grammar  and  in  literary  in- 
terpretation will  serve  to  reen  force  the  conclusions 
based  on  this  experimental  evidence.  Hoyt's  findings 
are  precisely  what  one  would  naturally  anticipate,  for 
the  mental  attitudes  and  activities  in  grammar  and  in 
literary  interpretation  are  so  different  that  the  excel- 
lence developed  in  one  subject  need  not  necessarily 
influence  the  proficiency  attained  in  the  other.  Only 
when  awkward  or  unusual  construction  of  sentences 
hinders  acquisition  of  meaning  will  a  knowledge  of 
grammatical  functions  aid  in  literary  interpretation. 
But  in  the  elementary  schools  such  situations  are  not 
the  rule,  and  the  child's  grasp  of  grammatical  func- 
tion is  so  meager  that  it  is  of  little  service  in  tracing 
the  relationship  among  clauses  and  phrases  in  sen- 
tences whose  construction  is  not  lucid. 

4.  Cultural  or  Conventional  Value  of  Grammar. — 
The  teaching  of  grammar  may  be  justified  on  the 
ground  of  social  expediency.  Many  facts  are  taught, 
not  because  they  have  intrinsic  worth  but  because  they 
form  part  of  that  knowledge  stock  that  society  ex- 
pects its  citizen  of  culture  to  possess.  The  terminol- 
ogy of  grammar  adds  useful  words  like  modify,  inde- 
pendent, dependent,  mode,  tense,  imperative,  superla- 
tive, clause — words  that  enrich  vocabulary  and  add  to 
expressional  powers. 

But  while  the  conventional  demands  must  be  con- 
227 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

sidered  they  must  not  become  the  sole  governing  fac- 
tors. The  merest  superficial  knowledge  of  grammar 
will  satisfy  the  conventional  demands.  In  the  teach- 
ing of  those  elements  of  grammar  that  can  be  applied 
by  the  child  in  his  endeavors  at  self-criticism  and 
correction,  these  cultural  values  of  the  subject  can  be 
attained.  This  conventional  justification  need  not 
guide  either  in  teaching  the  subject  or  in  organizing 
a  course  of  study,  for  it  is  a  result  of  the  teaching  of 
grammar  by  any  method  and  through  any  course. 

5.  Preparatory  Value  of  Grammar. — The  final 
value  of  grammar  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a  neces- 
sary preparation  for  future  studies.  Ignorance  of 
grammar  makes  work  in  rhetoric  very  difficult. 
Teachers  of  foreign  languages  in  secondary  schools 
complain  that  progress  is  impeded  by  the  children's 
lack  of  basic  knowledge  of  English  grammar.  If  we 
take  Goethe's  dictum  seriously,  "He  who  knows  only 
one  tongue,  does  not  know  that  well,"  the  preparatory 
value  of  grammar  must  be  regarded  seriously.  But 
when  we  recall  the  high  rate  of  elimination  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  it  is  obvious  that  this  preparatory 
value  justifies  the  teaching  of  grammar  only  to  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  school  population — those  who  reach 
the  high  school  and  pursue  the  study  of  rhetoric  or 
foreign  languages. 

SUGGESTED  READING 

The  suggested  reading  for  this  chapter  will  be  found 
at  the  end  of  chapter  XIV. 

228 


CHAPTER    XIV 

PRINCIPLES  GOVERNING  THE  TEACHING  OF 
GRAMMAR 

The  discussion  has  thus  far  concerned  itself  with 
abuses  that  mark  prevailing  methods  of  teaching 
grammar  and  with  a  survey  of  the  legitimate  aims  and 
scope  of  the  subject.  We  must  now  turn  to  a  consid- 
eration of  the  principles  which  may  lead  pupils  to 
attain  these  values  so  that  grammar  may  become  an 
intelligent  subject  to  them,  intimately  related  to  the 
needs  of  their  lives. 

1.  Begin  with  the  Sentence.- — This  is  the  first  of 
these  basic  principles.  In  grammar,  as  in  most  sub- 
jects, an  analytic-synthetic  method  is  the  rational  pro- 
cedure in  teaching,  but  a  cursory  examination  of  most 
of  our  elementary  books  on  the  subject  shows  the  re- 
verse form  of  instruction.  The  noun,  the  verb,  the 
pronoun,  the  subject,  the  predicate,  are  the  topics  em- 
phasized in  the  initial  pages.  The  mastery  of  these 
elements  prepares  the  child  for  the  comprehension  of 
the  sentence.  But  logical  though  this  procedure  may 
be,  it  is  hardly  psychological.  If  we  are  to  make  gram- 
mar rational  and  necessary  in  the  eyes  of  the  child, 
we  must  begin  with  that  part  of  grammar  which  is 
related  to  the  child's  needs.  The  "point  of  contact" 

229 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

is  the  sentence.  Since  the  child  strives  constantly  to 
express  thought,  the  sentence,  the  unit  of  thought  ex- 
pression, must  be  mastered  first.  It  is  true  that  when 
the  child  first  begins  to  speak,  "he  is  a  word  utterer" ; 
but  if  the  word  is  spoken  spontaneously  and  not  as  an 
imitated  sound  for  the  edification  of  the  proud  parents, 
it  is,  in  intent,  a  sentence.  "Papa,"  "hat,"  "doll," 
usually  symbolize  "Take  me,  papa!"  "Give  me  the 
hat!"  "I  want  the  doll."  The  accompanying  gestures 
and  pantomimes  are  evidences  of  the  thought  which 
governs  these  utterances,  which  are  called  in  psy- 
chology "word-sentences." 

The  application  of  this  simple  dictum  is  obvious. 
There  must  be  an  emphasis  on  sentence  structure  be- 
fore the  parts  of  speech  are  taught.  Sentences  in 
great  number  should  introduce  lessons  on  participles, 
prepositions,  conjunctions,  or  any  specific  technical 
element  of  grammar.  In  the  course  of  an  analysis  of 
the  structure  of  these  sentences  and  the  function  of  all 
their  elements,  the  new  lesson  should  be  evolved.  An 
illustration  of  this  principle  will  be  found  in  the  lesson 
on  subject  and  predicate  which  is  outlined  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  third  principle  in  the  teaching  of  gram- 
mar. 

2.  Make  the  Work  as  Concrete  and  Practical  as  Pos- 
sible.— This  is  the  second  guiding  suggestion  that  we 
must  keep  in  mind.  Grammar  finds  few  friends 
among  the  children  in  those  classes  wrhere  it  is  intro- 
duced. The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  These  children 
find  it  an  unnecessary  and  arbitrary  classification  of 
the  speech  they  think  they  know.  As  the  grades  ad- 

230 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

vance,  children  like  grammar  better,  for  the  thought- 
ful ones  now  see  its  influence  on  speech.  The  most 
flagrant  waste  of  time  and  energy  in  grammar  can 
be  traced  to  the  absence  of  any  intimate  relation  be- 
tween the  lessons  in  this  subject  and  those  in  oral  and 
written  composition.  There  must  be  such  a  correla- 
tion between  these  subjects,  between  the  art  and  the 
science  phase  of  language,  that  every  grammar  lesson 
begins  in  the  expressional  errors  of  the  children.  If 
the  rule  of  agreement  is  to  be  taught,  select  for  the 
children's  compositions  sentences  that  violate  this  law ; 
if  the  relative  pronoun  is  to  be  presented,  select  for 
their  written  work  sentences  that  are  too  simple.  Lead 
them  to  see  how  the  weak  construction:  "The  poor 
sailor  then  stepped  into  the  royal  chamber.  He  was 
destined  to  discover  a  new  world  for  Spain,"  can  be 
strengthened  by  turning  it  into,  "The  poor  sailor,  who 
was  destined  to  discover  a  new  world  for  Spain,  now 
stepped  into  the  royal  chamber."  Add  instance  after 
instance,  and  let  the  children  discover  that  the  word 
who  in  one  case,  which  in  another,  that  in  still  an- 
other enable  one  to  give  the  suspense  and  the  strength 
to  the  two  sentences.  Ask  the  class  what  the  next  les- 
son in  grammar  ought  to  be  and  they  will  state  their 
own  aim,  thus  motivating  the  lesson.  After  the  topic 
is  taught,  this  knowledge  acquired  in  the  lesson  must 
be  applied  in  the  correction  of  the  past  written  wort. 
Errors  of  agreement,  like  One  of  the  men  were,  can 
now  be  changed  by  the  children  themselves;  simple, 
isolated  sentences  are  now  fused  into  one  suspended 
sentence,  and  the  practical  aspect  of  grammar  is  thus 

231 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

emphasized.  To  neglect  this  simple  principle  of  mo- 
tivation is  to  neglect  the  final  justification  for  the 
teaching  of  grammar. 

3.  Shall  the  Method  in  Grammar  Be  Inductive  or  De- 
ductive?— Teachers  frequently  ask  this  question  to- 
day. To  emphasize  the  disciplinary  value  of  gram- 
mar, teachers  adopted  the  long  inductive  method  of 
discovery.  This  led  to  extravagant  expenditure  of 
time  and  very  often  did  not  eliminate  the  drill  in  the 
end.  To  save  time  and  effort,  and  at  the  same  time 
guarantee  a  mastery  of  the  facts,  other  teachers  re- 
verted to  the  old  didactic  method,  the  deductive  pro- 
cedure. The  teacher  explains  the  new  lesson,  the 
children  memorize  the  necessary  information,  and 
proceed  with  the  application.  Observation  of  class 
teaching  seems  to  indicate  that  the  current  method  in 
grammar  is  deductive  rather  than  inductive.  Ex- 
tremes must  be  avoided,  and  one  method  must  not  be 
adopted  throughout  the  school  course  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  other.  Each  method  has  its  distinct  and  legiti- 
mate province.  In  those  grades  in  which  formal 
grammar  is  introduced  the  lessons  may  safely  follow 
an  intensely  inductive  procedure.  It  is  a  longer  meth- 
od and  is  more  costly  in  time,  but  it  is  justified  by  the 
fact  that  a  permanent  foundation  is  being  laid.  In 
this  grade  the  teacher  is  anxious  to  give  clear  and 
accurate  concepts.  The  method  which  leads  children 
to  the  conclusion  rather  than  gives  it  to  them,  and 
which  insists  that  children  discover  information  after 
studying  specific  details,  is  best  designed  to  achieve 
this  end.  But  in  the  upper  grades  the  development 

232 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

method  is  not  necessary.  Children  know  the  basic 
facts,  hence  they  can  reason  by  analogy  and  arrive  at 
new  conclusions.  Knowing  an  adjective  and  an  ad- 
jective phrase,  it  becomes  unnecessary  to  learn  induc- 
tively the  adjective  clause.  In  these  upper  grades  the 
book  can  be  used  as  a  basis;  the  deductive  method, 
therefore,  becomes  the  more  natural  one.  It  is  also 
found  that  much  of  the  advanced  grammar  is  only 
an  added  application  or  a  review  of  the  simpler  forms. 
Thus,  the  child  who  knows  a  substantive  phrase  and 
an  infinitive,  can  be  spared  the  tedium  of  a  develop- 
ment lesson  on  the  infinitive  as  a  subject.  It  must  also 
be  remembered  that  there  is  much  in  grammar  that  is 
arbitrary;  a  deductive  lesson  is  therefore  more  appro- 
priate. No  explanation  can  account  for  four  genders 
in  grammar  and  only  two  in  life,  three  cases  in  Eng- 
lish grammar  and  many  more  in  actual  speech.  And 
finally  it  is  evident  that  a  deductive  lesson  is  not  syn- 
onymous with  arbitrary  memory  drill.  There  can 
be  as  much  thought  and  concentration  in  the  deduc- 
tive lesson  as  in  the  inductive.  The  special  province 
of  each  of  these  modes  of  procedure  can  be  made 
clearer  by  concrete  illustrations  through  appropriate 
lessons. 

Inductive  Lesson:    Subject  and  Predicate 

Introduction-. — The  best  means  of  establishing  a 
point  of  contact  between  this  topic  in  grammar  and 
the  child's  experience  is  to  begin  with  the  pupil's  errors 
of  sentence  structure  due  to  omission  of  subject  or 

233 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

predicate,  or  both.  The  following  are  typical  mis- 
takes :  "Hoping  to  hear  soon,"  "Standing  in  the 
doorway,"  "Received  your  letter  of  last  Thursday" 
A  few  well-chosen  questions  will  elicit  from  the  chil- 
dren that  in  these  expressions  we  do  not  know  who 
hopes  or  stands  in  the  doorway  or  received  the  letter. 
Proper  subjects  are  then  supplied, f/ tor" the  first;^My 
brother  for  the  second,  and  The  teacher  for  the  third. 
The  first  expression  then  becomes  /  hoping  to  hear 
soon.  This  the  children  readily  change  to  /  hope  to 
hear  soon.  After  the  same  changes  are  made  in  the 
second  and  the  third  expressions  the  teacher  announces 
the  aim  of  the  lesson — to  learn  a  mode  of  testing 
whether  sentences  have  their  necessary  parts. 
_  Presentation  of  the  Lesson. — The  teacher  now  calls 
for  a  sentence  about  Columbus  telling  what  he  did, 
another  telling  what  was  done  to  him,  and  a  third, 
what  he  was.  The  following  sentences  were  obtained 
from  a  sixth-year  class: 

Columbus  discovered  the  continent  of  America. 

Columbus  was  imprisoned  on  board  his  ship. 

Columbus  was  a  bold  navigator. 

In  the  same  manner  the  following  series  of  sentences 
was  elicited  from  the  class : 

The  sun  shines  upon  the  earth. 

The  sun  is  hidden  by  the  clouds. 

The  sun  is  a  large  fireball. 

The  teacher's  questions  then  brought  from  the  chil- 
dren that  Columbus  is  "the  person  talked  about"  in 
the  fitst  group  of  sentences  »and  the  sun  is  "the  thing 
talked  about"  in  the  second.  The  children  were  also 

234 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 


>was  a  bold  navigator. 


led  to  conclude  that  the  second  part  of  each  sentence 
in  the  first  group  "tells  about"  Columbus  and  the  sec- 
ond part  of  each  sentence  in  the  second  group  "tells 
about"  the  sun. 

The  second  part  of  the  presentation  required  the 
children  to  substitute  some  other  name  or  word  for 
Columbus  or  the-swn-  in  the  sentences  above.  "Colum- 
bus was  a  bold  navigator"  became 

Captain  Drake 

Robinson  Crusoe 

Paul  Jones 

Magellan 

"The  sun  is  hidden  by  the  clouds"  was  turned  into 

The  moon 

The  bright  star 

The  blue  sky 

The  mountain  top 

In  the  same  way  children  were  required  to  retain 
Columbus  and  the  sun  and  "tell  other  things  about 
The  results  obtained  from  the  class  were: 
was  a  poor  Italian  lad. 


is  hidden  by  the  clouds. 


Columbus  + 


appeared  before  the  Court  of  Spain. 


was  not  easily  discouraged, 
did  not  fear  his  angry  sailors, 
warms  the  earth, 
gives  us  bright  days. 
The  sun    -j   is  very  far  from  the  earth. 
hurts  some  people's  eyes, 
makes  people  happy. 
The  teacher  then  asked,  "How  many  parts  has  each 
sentence?"    "What  does  each  part  do?" 

235 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

Comparison. — The  next  step  in  the  development  of 
the  concept  subject  and  predicate  was  a  contrast  be- 
tween sentences  and  phrases  or  incomplete  sentences. 
The  children  were  led  to  compare  each  of  the  follow- 
ing pairs  and  tell  which  expression  was  a  sentence : 
To  the  circus.  William  went  to  the  cir- 

cus. 
I   hope   the   day   will  be     Hoping  the  day  will  be 

bright.  bright. 

The  hungry  bird  flew  into     Into  the  room. 

the  room. 

Received  the  gift.  The    poor    lady    received 

the  gift. 

Generalization. — The  teacher  then  told  the  class  that 
the  part  of  avsentence  that  tells  "what  we  talk  about" 
is  called  subject,  and  that  part  that  tells  "what  we  say 
of  the  subject"  is  called  predicate.  The  children  were 
then  required  to  formulate  their  definitions  of  these 
two  new  terms. 

Application. — Many  exercises  which  applied  this 
knowledge  were  now  introduced.  Children  were  re- 
quired to  find  the  subject  and  predicate  of  given  sen- 
tences; to  supply  a  variety  of  subjects  for  a  given 
predicate;  to  supply  many  predicates  for  a  set  subject; 
to  turn  phrases  into  sentences;  to  make  sentences  out 
of  participial  constructions;  to  indicate  the  sentences 
in  a  paragraph  in  which  there  were  no  capitals  and  no 
periods.  The  final  form  of  application  consisted  in  hav- 
ing the  children  reread  their  old  compositions  in  their 
endeavor  to  change  every  faulty  or  incomplete  sen- 
tence so  that  it  would  have  both  subject  and  predicate. 

236 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

Deductive  Lesson:  Infinitives 

In  contrast  with  this  lesson  for  a  sixth-year  class, 
let  us  turn  to  a  seventh-year  group  that  must  study 
infinitives. 

Preparation. — The  children  were  given  a  talk  on  the 
desirability  of  variety  of  expression,  with  plenty  of 
illustrations  to  make  the  point  clear.  The  teacher 
concluded  this  short  discourse  by  stating  the  aim  of 
the  lesson,  "To  learn  a  new  and  more  attractive  form 
of  expressing  our  ideas." 

Presentation. — The  children  were  told  to  find  the 
chapter  on  infinitives  in  their  textbook,  and  their  at- 
tention was  directed  to  the  very  first  sentence — "An 
infinitive  is  a  verb  form,  introduced  by  to,  and  used 
as  a  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb."  After  the  sentence 
was  read,  the  children  were  asked  to  write  a  list  of 
verbs  on  their  papers ;  go,  see,  exercise,  work,  do,  etc., 
were  among  those  given;  each  verb  was  then  intro- 
duced by  to  and  the  infinitives  to  go,  to  see,  to  exercise, 
etc.,  were  formed. 

To  make  the  concept  clearer,  a  few  minutes  were 
spent  on  such  pairs  of  contrasting  sentences  as : 

Go  to  the  store.  To  go  to  the  store  when  told  is  a 
boy's  duty. 

Write  carefully  to  the  end.  To  write  carefully  to 
the  end  should  be  our  aim, 

and  the  class  was  led  to  see  clearly  the  differences  be- 
tween infinitives  and  prepositional  phrases. 

The  class  then  turned  to  the  first  function  of  an 
infinitive,  "used  as  a  noun."  The  children  were  re- 

237 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

quired  to  tell  the  functions  of  a  noun.  They  reviewed 
their  knowledge  of  this  topic  in  grammar,  and  the 
class  formulated  the  following  composite  result:  "A 
noun  can  be  used  (i)  as  subject,  (2)  as  object,  (3)  as 
predicate  noun."  The  teacher  then  put  on  the  board : 

He  likes . 

He  desires . 

and  the  children  supplied  appropriate  infinitive  forms. 
They  were  led  to  realize  that  in  these  sentences  the 
infinitives  function  as  objects.  The  children  then  con- 
structed original  sentences. 

In  the  same  way,  the  teacher  put  on  the  board : 

is  beneficial  for  the  body. 

pays  in  the  end. 

and  the  children  supplied  "To  exercise"  for  the  first 
and  "To  work  faithfully"  for  the  second.  An  analy- 
sis of  the  sentences  showed  that  the  infinitives  were 
now  functioning  as  subjects.  In  similar  exercises  the 
children  verified  the  fact  that  infinitives  can  be  used 
as  nouns. 

The  adjective  function  of  infinitives  was  taken  up  in 
the  same  manner.  "He  is  an  honorable  man"  was 
changed  to  "He  is  a  man  to  honor"  The  syntax  of 
honorable  and  to  honor  was  compared,  and  the  chil- 
dren saw  clearly  that  infinitives  can  perform  the  office 
of  adjectives. 

The  third  and  final  important  function  of  the  infini- 
tive, the  adverb,  was  taught  very  easily.  The  teacher 
presented,  "He  came''  "He  wanted  to  see  Brutus" 
and  asked  the  children  to  join  these  two  weak  sen- 
tences into  one  strong  sentence,  using  the  fewest  num- 

238 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

her  of  words.  After  a  few  trials  and  failures  he  ob- 
tained "He  came  to  see  Brutusf  An  analysis  of  this 
simple  sentence  made  the  adverbial  function  of  the 
infinitive  phrase,  to  see  Brutus,  apparent.  Original 
constructions  by  the  children  were  called  for  to  em- 
phasize this  function  of  infinitives. 

The  deductive  lesson  as  here  outlined,  although  re- 
quiring more  than  a  single  period,  saved  considerable 
time  and  labor,  and  gave,  as  a  result,  a  conception  of 
infinitives  as  clear  and  as  convincing  as  most  inductive 
lessons  on  this  topic.  In  addition,  the  class  was  given 
a  very  effective  lesson  on  how  to  study  grammar.  It 
is  obvious  that  to  lay  down  a  general  law  in  favor  of 
one  method  is  shortsighted  because  the  method  must 
be  determined  by  the  conditions  that  obtain  in  a  given 
class. 

4.  The  Use  of  the  Type  Form  Must  not  Be  Overempha- 
sized.— In  the  use  of  type  forms  in  grammar,  the 
teacher  is  beset  by  many  difficulties.  Some  textbooks 
measure  the  child's  progress  in  grammar  by  his  mas- 
tery of  set  forms  of  analysis,  synthesis,  and  construe-  • 
tion.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  dwell  on  these 
type  forms  long  enough,  fearing  to  reduce  the  subject 
to  mere  rote  learning.  In  the  teaching  of  simple  sen- 
tences, it  is  not  safe  to  follow  the  type  form  of  (a) 
subject,  (b)  predicate,  (c)  complements,  too  closely. 
In  the  sentence,  "The  boy  worked  his  way  through 
these  difficulties''  this  sequence  helps,  but  when  the 
child  is  confronted  by  a  poetical  construction  like 
"Them  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor,''  he  applies  the 
same  principle  of  analysis  by  location  and  makes 

239 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

them  the  subject  rather  than  the  object.  It  is 
apparent  that  overemphasis  on  the  type  form  reduces 
grammar  to  a  verbal,  not  a  rational,  level. 

What,  then,  is  the  place  of  the  type  in  the  teaching 
of  grammar?  In  all  initial  lessons  and  in  all  drill 
lessons,  the  type  form  should  be  adhered  to  very 
faithfully.  So  vigorous  should  the  drill  on  the  type  be 
that  the  imitation  of  its  form  becomes  a  habit.  But 
as  soon  as  the  principle  involved  is  thoroughly  mas- 
tered, we  should  make  gradual  and  persistent  effort  to 
work  with  as  many  variations  of  the  type  form  as 
possible.  This  guarantees  thought,  prevents  slavish 
imitation  and  mechanical  rote  work. 

5.  By  Avoiding  Stereotyped  Definitions  and  Set  Form- 
ulae We  Are  Saved  from  Another  Erroneous  Form  of 
Teaching  Grammar. — To  many,  definitions  must  play 
an  important  role  in  grammar  which  is  a  subject  of 
classification  and  systematization.  But  no  matter  how 
essential  they  may  be,  we  must  guard  against  a  par- 
rot-like repetition  of  scientifically  accurate  definitions. 
They  should  always  be  the  result  of  the  children's 
own  activity  and  should  come  at  the  end  of  the  lesson 
after  each  child  has  seen  the  function  of  those  ele- 
ments which  he  defines.  The  wording,  too,  should,  in 
the  main,  be  the  child's  own;  only  inaccuracies  of  ex- 
pression should  be  changed  by  the  teacher.  Defini- 
tions like  "A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the 
relation  between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  and  some  other 
word — a  verb,  an  adjective,  another  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun," or  "A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb, 
participating  in  the  properties  of  a  noun  or  adjective," 

240 


THE   TEACHING  OF   GRAMMAR 

are  set  forms  that  have  their  place  in  textbooks  but 
should  never  be  heard  coming  from  children  in  the 
classroom,  for  their  scientific  precision  presupposes 
a  mature  mind  and  a  rich  knowledge  of  language  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  Teachers  are  learning  that 
ability  to  define  is  no  index  of  comprehension.  Most 
of  the  concepts  which  are  vital  parts  of  life  and  which 
are  perceived  with  rare  clearness  are  most  difficult  to 
define,  for  the  individual  lacks  the  necessary  verbal 
ability.  Clear  perception  of  function,  not  verbal  for- 
mulation, marks  thoroughness  of  comprehension. 

The  safest  procedure  in  the  matter  of  definitions  is 
not  to  demand  the  memorization  of  the  phraseology 
but  only  of  the  basic  and  component  ideas.  These  the 
child  should  state  in  his  own  words.  Hence  the  child 
should  be  required  to  remember  that  a  preposition  ( I ) 
connects,  (2)  shows  relation;  a  participle  is  (i)  a 
verbal,  (2)  can  be  used  as  adjective  or  noun.  In  recit- 
ing, the  child  should  give,  first,  an  original  illustration, 
then  follow  this  by  a  statement  expressing  the  ideas 
memorized.  Hence,  the  child  answering  the  teacher's 
question,  "What  is  a  preposition?"  says:  "The  boy 
stood  on  the  burning  deck — on;  a  preposition  is  a  word 
used  to  connect  and  show  the  relation  of  deck  to 
stood."  In  similar  manner  the  child  recites  the  defini- 
tion of  a  participle  by  saying,  "Seeing  the  enemy,  he 
ordered  a  retreat — seeing;  a  participle  coming  from 
the  verb  see,  used  as  an  adjective,  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject." If  no  two  children  are  allowed  to  give  the  same 
illustration,  we  have  a  guarantee  that  such  recitations 
show  rational  memory  of  ideas  grasped,  rather  than 

241 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

verbal  memory  of  concepts  vaguely  comprehended. 
The  recitation  of  a  definition  must  be  a  process  of  ra- 
tional reconstruction  rather  than  mere  verbal  repro- 
duction. 

6.  The  Application  Step  Is  the  Final  Justification  of 
Grammar  and  Must  Be  Accorded  the  Most  Important  Place 
in  the  Lesson. — Attention  to  the  application  of  the  laws 
learned  in  grammar  is  a  means  of  emphasizing  the 
utilitarian  value  of  the  subject  and  of  clarifying  the 
concepts  that  the  child  has  acquired.  The  application 
step  is  also  a  means  of  bringing  out  the  disciplin- 
ary value  of  grammar  for,  as  the  type  is  varied,  the 
child's  ingenuity,  thought,  and  concentration  are  stimu- 
lated. 

Application  of  any  topic  learned  is  not  complete 
unless  the  children  have  had  two  types  of  exercises. 
The  first  form  of  application  is  one  of  analysis.  Let 
us  assume  that  the  first  lesson  on  participles,  the  pres- 
ent participle,  has  just  been  completed.  Selections 
containing  present  participles  are  taken  up  and  the 
children  must  analyze  each  sentence,  point  out  the 
participles  and  justify  their  answers  by  explaining  the 
function  of  each  participle.  The  second  and  more  im- 
portant form  of  application  is  through  synthetic  exer- 
cises in  which  children  are  required  to  originate  con- 
text which  shows  the  use  of  the  participle.  Lists  of 
verbs  are  given  out  and  the  pupils  must  now  use  the 
present  participial  form  in  a  sentence.  Pairs  of  simple 
related  sentences  are  written  on  the  board,  and  each 
child  must  combine  each  pair  into  a  long,  suspended 
sentence  through  the  use  of  a  present  participle.  Such 

242 


THE   TEACHING  OF   GRAMMAR 

synthetic  exercises  test  not  the  verbal  memory  of  defi- 
nitions, classifications,  names  or  forms,  but  measure 
efficiency  in  the  correct  use  of  language  elements. 

A  further  illustration  may  serve  to  clinch  the  point. 
The  adjective  and  the  adverb  were  taught  to  a  sixth- 
year  class.  The  method  of  application  by  analysis 
contained  exercises  which  asked:  "In  the  following 
paragraph,  which  are  adjectives?  Which  adverbs? 
Why?"  The  method  of  application  by  synthesis  gave 
the  children  sentences  like,  "The  swift  eagle  flew 
through  the  air."  The  child  called  upon  was  required 
to  tell  the  syntax  of  swift  and  to  change  it  to  the  op- 
posite form.  The  pupil's  answer  was:  "Swift  talks 
about  eagle,  therefore  it  is  an  adjective.  The  oppo- 
site form  is,  'The  eagle  flew  swiftly  through  the  air/ ' 
The  sentence,  "He  writes  well,"  was  given  to  another 
member  of  the  class.  She  recited :  "Well  tells  in  what 
manner  he  recites,  therefore  it  is  an  adverb.  The  op- 
posite is  'He  is  a  good  writer/  '  A  more  difficult  ap- 
plication by  synthesis,  suitable  for  seventh-year  work, 
asks  the  child  to  tell  which  form  he  would  use  in  the 
following  sentence  and  why:  "He  ground  the  knife 
sharp  or  sharply";  "The  flower  smells  sweetly  or 
sweet" ;  "He  looks  stern  or  sternly" ;  "The  food  tastes 
well  or  good."  These  synthetic  exercises  concern  them- 
selves with  testing  the  final  aim  of  grammar,  ability 
to  use.  The  method  of  application  by  analysis  is 
not  even  a  guarantee  of  comprehension.  Children 
often  recognize  grammatical  forms  by  accidental  end- 
ings like  ly  or  ing  and  rarely  by  the  perception  of 
their  function. 

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THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

7.  Function  Should  Be  Made  Focal  in  All  Grammatical 
Analysis. — This  vital  suggestion  often  determines  the 
progress  of  all  future  work.  It  is  obvious  that  no  ele- 
ment in  language,  whether  word,  or  phrase,  or  clause, 
has  a  fixed  grammatical  classification,  for,  as  the  func- 
tion varies,  the  classification  changes.  Children  must 
be  taught  the  absurdity  of  calling  milk  a  noun  or  who 
a  relative  pronoun.  They  must  be  taught  from  the 
very  beginning  to  seek  the  function  that  a  given  ele- 
ment discharges  in  the  sentence.  They  will  soon  real- 
ize that  milk  may  be  a  noun  or  a  verb.  Since  function 
determines  grammatical  classification,  courses  of  study 
and  textbooks  insist  that  all  terms  be  denned  in  terms 
of  use.  The  usual  form  is  therefore,  A  noun  is  a  word 
used  as  the  name  of  a  person,  place,  or  thing;  milk  is  a 
noun  because  it  is  used  to  name  a  thing. 

The  suggestion  is  helpful,  but  it  does  not  go  far 
enough.  Since  the  function  not  only  determines  classi- 
fication but  also  lies  at  the  very  basis  of  efficiency  of 
grammar,  why  not  give  the  function  first?  Hence, 
the  child  should  recite,  "Milk  shows  action;  therefore 
it  is  a  verb."  In  the  sentence,  "Who  was  it  who  came 
into  the  room?"  the  first  who  asks  the  question,  there- 
-fore  it  is  an  interrogative  pronoun ;  but  the  second  who 
connects  the  clauses  and  stands  for  the  person,  there- 
fore it  is  a  relative  pronoun.  At  first  glance  the  ob- 
jection may  appear  petty,  but  practical  experience  soon 
shows  how  helpful  is  the  use  of  therefore  in  place  of 
because,  for  the  word  therefore  forces  the  child  to 
determine  the  function  of  the  element  in  question. 
Very  often  children  state  the  correct  function  of  the 

244 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

word  but  err  in  the  classification;  such  pupils  show 
ability  to  think  correctly  and  consistently,  for  the  in- 
correct answer  is  due  to  faulty  memory  rather  than 
lack  of  ability  to  reason.  This  form  of  parsing  de- 
velops a  useful  attitude  in  all  advanced  work.  When 
the  child  in  his  later  work  meets  the  sentence,  "The 
Lorelei  on  the  rock  sat  combing  her  golden  hair,"  he 
says,  "  'On  the  rock'  tells  me  about  the  Lorelei,  there- 
fore it  is  an  adjective  phrase."  It  has  been  part  of 
the  exasperating  experience  of  all  teachers  of  gram- 
mar to  have  a  child  give  a  wrong  classification,  and 
when  asked  for  the  reason  to  find  him  inventing  a 
justification  more  stupid  than  his  original  error  merely 
to  seem  consistent.  Such  absurd  procedures  are 
guarded  against  and  even  undermined  when  children 
are  taught  from  their  very  earliest  lessons  in  grammar 
to  state  the  function  first  and  then  the  classification. 

8.  Analysis  Is  Important  but  We  Must  not  Analyze  for 
the  Sake  of  Analysis. — This  principle  saves  much  time 
and  useless  effort.  There  can  be  little  doubt  about  the 
need  and  the  value  of  exercises  in  analysis  of  sen- 
tences, for  they  give  helpful  insight  into  language 
structure,  teach  how  to  apply  grammar  to  derive  ob- 
scured meaning,  and  train  in  logical  thought. 

But  despite  the  undisputed  use  of  formal  analysis, 
not  all  sentences  are  worthy  of  analysis.  "A  wise  ab- 
stinence as  well  as  a  wise  selection  is  essential  to  suc- 
ess."  The  next  question  that  arises  is,  therefore, 
What  shall  we  select  for  analysis  by  the  children?" 
Only  those  things  should  be  subjected  to  analysis  by 
the  class  which  (i)  are  difficult  or  doubtful  of  com- 

245 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

prehension  and  hence  need  analysis,  and  which  (2) 
present  constructions  that  allow  for  useful  synthetic 
exercises.  Thus,  in  the  two  sentences,  "The  snow, 
falling  thickly,  blinded  the  soldiers,"  and  "The  snow 
falling  thickly,  the  soldiers  were  blinded,"  the  use  of 
the  commas,  and  the  change  from  the  active  to  the 
passive  voice,  give  practice  in  variety  of  sentence 
structure.  Effective  exercises  in  oral  composition  and 
variety  of  expression  can  be  given  with  this  as  a  ba- 
sis: "The  barometer,  falling  rapidly,  foretold  an  ap- 
proaching storm,"  becomes  "The  barometer  falling 
rapidly,  the  approaching  storm  was  foretold."  So, 
too,  analysis  of  sentences  like  "One  of  the  soldiers 
were  captured,"  or  "A  committee  of  Sophomores  and 
Juniors  were  appointed"  shows  at  once  the  bad  agree- 
ment and  affords  opportunity  for  a  language  drill 
both  necessary  and  profitable. 

A  final  consideration  in  exercises  in  analysis  is  the 
method  of  indicating,  by  a  diagrammatic  scheme,  con- 
stituent elements  of  a  sentence  and  their  relation.  It 
is  obvious  that  the  diagram  makes  a  strong  visual  ap- 
peal, saves  time,  and  facilitates  the  handling  of  com- 
ponent elements,  especially  in  complex  sentences.  But 
great  care  must  be  taken,  first,  to  keep  the  diagram- 
ming simple,  and,  second,  to  have  a  uniform  system 
throughout  the  school  course.  A  violation  of  these 
suggestions  means  endless  confusion  and  decreased  at- 
tention to  the  thought  involved. 

9.  "Parsing  Is  Essential  if  Used  Within  Bounds." — . 
This  is  the  next  counsel  to  the  teacher  of  grammar. 
This  form  of  grammatical  exercise  is  indulged  in  so 

246 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

frequently  because  it  develops  a  habit  of  speech  which 
makes  one  sensitive  to  correct  forms.  The  constant 
drill  on  "case  and  why"  develops  a  sensitivity  for  the 
different  case  forms;  one  strives  automatically  to 
make  "who"  and  "whom,"  "she"  and  "her,"  and  "I" 
and  "me"  grammatically  correct ;  one  acquires  a  habit 
of  seeing  the  grammatical  function  to  be  discharged 
and  then  endeavoring  to  use  the  appropriate  form. 
Parsing  is  the  basis  of  technical  grammar  just  as 
classification  is  the  basis  in  the  sciences.  But  while  we 
grant  its  importance,  we  must  guard  against  analysis 
and  classification  that  are  too  minute.  We  must  re- 
member that  "a  sentence  is  a  living  thing,  and  all 
analysis  is,  in  a  way,  an  insult  to  it."  We  must  con- 
stantly differentiate  between  a  classification  that  gives 
useful  habits  of  speech  and  one  that  leads  to  no  use- 
ful end.  Classification  for  its  own  sake  is  as  sterile 
practically  as  it  is  deadening  mentally. 

Let  us  illustrate  incorrect  parsing  due  to  overem- 
phasis on  classification.  The  teacher  of  seventh-year 
pupils  asked  them  to  parse  chair,  in  the  sentence,  "He 
sat  on  a  quaint  stool,  a  chair  used  by  the  natives."  The 
answer  required  was,  "Chair  is  a  common  noun,  third 
person,  neuter  gender,  singular  number,  objective  case, 
in  apposition  with  stool,  after  the  preposition  on." 
Of  the  five  items  enumerated  by  the  child,  three  are 
absolutely  worthless.  Third  person  can  well  be  omit- 
ted, for  almost  all  nouns  can  boast  of  that;  singular 
number  is  too  evident  to  need  mention  by  76  pupils; 
neuter  gender  can  be  passed  over  for  the  same  reason. 
The  classification  and  the  case  with  its  proof  are  the 

247 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

only  two  necessary  facts  that  should  be  stated.  To 
go  beyond  this  limit  is  a' waste  of  time,  an  emphasis 
on  non-essentials,  and  an  irrational  exaltation  of  the 
technique  of  speech. 

10.     "False  Syntax"  Must  Be  Emphasized,  for  It  Is  an 

Effective  Means  of  Applying  the  Facts  of  Grammar 

Many  teachers  of  English  and  textbook  writers  are 
bitter  opponents  of  the  traditional  exercises  in  "false 
syntax,"  for  they  hold  that  these  language  drills  are 
both  unpedagogical  and  fraught  with  grave  danger. 
Their  argument  reduces  itself  to  the  oft-quoted  dic- 
tum that  language  is  learned  through  imitation;  they 
argue  that  the  child  must  be  surrounded  with  models 
of  correct  speech,  which  become  unconscious  sources 
of  suggestion  and  imitation.  But  in  "false  syntax"  the 
method  is  opposite  in  spirit  and  in  aim,  for  the  incor- 
rect forms  are  presented  and  it  becomes  a  source  of 
either  imitation  or  confusion  with  correct  speech.  The 
protest  would  be  well  founded  if  the  facts  implied 
were  true.  In  all  "false  syntax"  we  present  those  er- 
rors that  the  children  make  in  their  own  speech  or  that 
they  constantly  hear  from  those  about  them.  These 
errors  are  analyzed,  the  reason  for  the  incorrectness  is 
noted,  and  the  justification  for  the  corrections  is 
given.  The  very  mistakes  in  English  that  constantly 
assail  the  children's  ears  are  so  thoroughly  under- 
mined that  they  are  avoided  by  the  pupils.  Judging 
from  the  position  taken  by  those  who  protest  against 
"false  syntax,"  one  would  infer  that  children  either 
hear  only  the  correct  forms  or,  as  would  be  the  case 
in  a  foreign  language,  know  neither  correct  nor  incor- 

248 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

rect  forms.     If  this  were  true,  "false  syntax"  would 
indeed  be  a  gross  pedagogical  error. 

The  next  question  concerns  itself  with  the  time 
when  the  correction  of  "false  syntax"  should  be  em- 
phasized. In  the  earlier  textbooks  of  grammar,  it  was 
customary  to  study  first  the  laws  of  grammar,  and 
then  to  apply  them  in  the  correction  of  common  er- 
rors. But  the  current  method  is  more  logical,  for  it 
applies  every  law  of  grammar  to  correction  of  errors 
directly  it  is  understood.  After  the  child  learns  that 
every  sentence  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  his  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  such  errors  of  incomplete 
sentences  as  "Hoping  to  hear  from  you''  or  "Await- 
ing your  reply,"  or  "Am  delighted  to  hear  of 
your  success" ;  after  the  rule  of  agreement  has  been 
learned,  correction  of  such  typical  mistakes  as  "Wil- 
liam or  John  are  the  guilty  person"  should  be  taken 
up;  a  knowledge  of  the  possessive  case  should  lead  to 
the  correction  of  such  errors  as  childrens ,  mens' ,  etc. 
To  postpone  such  constructive  work  means  to  continue 
grammar  as  an  arbitrary  subject  despite  the  fact  that 
we  can  interpret  it  in  terms  of  social  need  and  social 
value  for  the  child. 

11.  Great  Care  Must  Be  Exercised  in  the  Organization 
of  Tests. — The  nature  of  examination  questions  often 
indicates  wrong  conceptions  of  the  aims  in  teaching 
any  subject.  All  test  questions  must  be  designed  to 
test  the  child's  progress  along  those  lines  that  mark  the 
guiding  values  of  the  subject.  With  this  standard  of 
judging  test  questions,  the  weakness  of  the  following 
questions  becomes  apparent.  "What  is  an  interroga- 

249 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

live  pronoun?",  "What  is  a  relative  pronoun?",  "Give 
three  examples  of  each,"  "State  the  rule  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  possessives  in  nouns,"  "Decline  the  first 
personal  pronoun,"  are  typical  of  those  found  in 
school  examinations,  and  must  be  condemned,  for 
they  test  verbal  memory,  not  ability  to  apply  the  les- 
sons of  grammar  to  the  needs  of  speech. 

Proper  test  questions  in  grammar  always  reveal 
knowledge  of  function  and  ability  to  apply  it  to  speech 
correction,  for  these  are  the  ultimate  ends  of  the  sub- 
ject. In  contrast  to  the  questions  mentioned,  the  fol- 
lowing show  a  marked  superiority :  "Correct  the  fol- 
lowing." "Which  form  is  correct?  Why?"  "Combine 
each  pair  of  sentences  through  the  use  of  a  relative 
pronoun,"  "Combine  them  through  the  use  of  a  parti- 
ciple," "Give  sentences  using  who  in  three  different 
cases,"  "Expand  the  following  phrases  into  clauses," 
"Reduce  the  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  into 
phrases,"  "Change  the  number  of  each  noun  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence  and  indicate  the  changes  that  must  be 
made  in  verbs  and  pronouns."  In  answering  these 
questions,  neither  mere  memory  of  form  nor  glib  re- 
cital of  textbook  definitions  will  be  of  service,  for  they 
test  ability  to  use  grammatical  elements  in  original 
context. 

^  A  seventh-year  class  was  given  the  following  test 
after  a  complete  study  of  relative  pronouns  and  rela- 
tive clauses: 

PART  I 

I.     Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  state  the  syntax 
of  each  clause: 

250 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

(a)  The  man,  whom  all  the  world  honors,  was  once 

a  poor  farmer  boy. 

(b)  The  house,  which  we  bought  recently,  we  sold 

again  to  the  man  who  called  yesterday. 
Parse  all  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following: 

(a)  To  him  who  hath,  much  shall  be  given. 

(b)  They  have  rights  who  dare  maintain  them. 

(c)  Such  of  his  songs  as  were  sung  were  much 

applauded. 

(d)  I  know  the  man  of  whom  you  speak. 
Expand  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  into 

clauses : 

(a)  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath." 

(b)  My  kind  friends  helped  me  to  obtain  an  excel- 

lent position. 

(c)  The  past  summer  has  brought  me  a  pleasant 

friendship. 

Contract   the   relative   clauses  in  the   following  into 
adjective  phrases   or   adjective  words: 

(a)  I  was  expected  to  accomplish  a  task  that  is 

impossible. 

(b)  I  do  not  wish  to  do  work  that  is  unnecessary. 

(c)  The   man   who    is   blind   was   injured   in   the 

street 

(d)  In  the  tree  that  had  lost  its  leaves,  were  three 

nests. 

Insert  the  proper  relative  pronoun  in  the   following 
and  give  reasons  for  your  choice: 

(a)  Man  is  the  only  animal  can  talk. 

(b)  There  are  many  persons  ,  though  they 

be  starving,  will  not  beg. 

(c)  This  is  the  malt lay  in  the  house 

Jack  built. 

(d)  There  are  many saw  him  fall. 

(e)  He  —  does  all  he  can,  does  all 

can  be  expected. 

251 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 

PART  II 

1.  Correct  the  following,  giving  reasons  for  each  change : 

(a)  Whom  did  you  think  that  it  was? 

(b)  I  saw  the  person  who  you  described. 

(c)  This  is  the  man  which  I  saw. 

2.  Combine  the  following  pairs  of  sentences  through  the 

use  of  a  relative  pronoun  and  show  why  the  single 
sentence  is  better: 

(a)  The  poor  Italian  lad  stood  before  the  queen. 

He  was  destined  to  discover  a  new  world. 

(b)  Lafayette  was  a  French  nobleman.     He  came 

to  America  to  help  Washington. 

3.  Use  who  or  its  forms  as  relatives  in  three  different 

sentences   showing  three  different  cases.     Do  the 
same  with  which. 

4.  Rewrite  the   following  sentences,   selecting  the   form 

you  think  correct : 

(a)  The   man    (who,   whom)    I   took  to   be   your 

brother,  has  enlisted  in  the  army. 

(b)  Is  he  the  man  (who,  whom)  I  am  supposed  to 

resemble  ? 

(c)  I  suggested  those  (who,  whom)  should  be  in- 

vited. 

An  analysis  of  this  test  shows  at  once  that  all  ques- 
tions test  thoroughness  of  comprehension  and  ability 
at  application.  Part  I,  given  one  day,  contains  ques- 
tions that  follow  type  forms  and  that  can  therefore 
be  answered  by  any  child  who  is  attentive  and  makes 
an  honest  effort  at  mastering  his  class  work.  Part  II, 
given  the  succeeding  day,  emphasizes  versatility  in  the 
use  of  relative  forms.  The  exercises  are  more  diffi- 
cult in  character  and  require  originality  and  deeper 
insight  into  grammatical  functions.  The  pupil  who 

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THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

secures  a  satisfactory  rating  in  such  a  test  gives  evi- 
dence of  comprehension  and  ability  to  apply  his  knowl- 
edge in  his  attempts  at  self-correction. 

But  the  teacher  must  not  suppose  that  a  test  of  such 
a  practical  nature  cannot  be  given  in  the  lower  grades 
where  only  elementary  facts  are  taught.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  reproduction  of  an  examination  given  to  a 
fourth-year  class  in  one  of  our  city  schools : 

GRADE  46 

1.  Change  these  to  mean  more  than  one: 

(a)  The  boy  is  tired. 

(b)  That  man  works  hard. 

(c)  The  dish  is  broken. 

(d)  The  calf  is  gentle. 

(e)  The  city  is  large. 

2.  Underline  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  the  follow- 

ing: 

(a)  Nathan  Hale  was  hanged. 

(b)  The  spider  spins  his  web. 

(c)  Near  the  stream  stood  a  house. 

(d)  Down  flew  the  eagle. 

(e)  The  Dutch  traded  with  the  Indians. 

3.  Put  the  right  word  in  the  blank  space: 

(do)  I  have  my  lessons. 

(is)  There two  apples. 

(break)  The  pencil  is  . 

(come)  Yesterday  he to  see  me. 

(run)  He  has his  last  race. 

4.  Rewrite  the  following  sentences  changing  the  under- 

lined words  to  the  singular  or  plural : 

(a)  The  mouse  ate  the  cheese. 

(b)  The  oxen  drew  the  plow  across  the  field. 

(c)  The  children  went  home. 

253 


THE  TEACHING  OF   ENGLISH 

(d)  John  took  the  box. 

(e)  The  knife  is  sharp. 

5.  If  you  have  studied  a  stanza  about  a  flower  or  a  tree, 

write  it;  if  not,  write  any  stanza  of  poetry  studied 
this  term. 

6.  Write  correctly: 

(a)  I  seen  your  brother  yesterday. 

(b)  Jack  done  it. 

(c)  You  was  there. 

(d)  I  broke  me  pencil. 

(e)  I  stood  up  early. 

7.  Write  five  sentences  about  the  flag  flying  above  our 

school.     Make  the  sentences  tell: 

(a)  What  things  do.     (Two  sentences.) 

(b)  What  is  done  to  things. 

(c)  What  things  are. 

(d)  What  the  quality  of  things  is. 

8.  Underline    subjects    and    predicates   in   the    following 

sentences — put    a    single    line    for    subject,    double 
line  for  predicate: 

(a)  Is  Jack  coming? 

(b)  Down  came  the  snow. 

(c)  The  boy  won  the  medal. 

(d)  The  games  were  fine. 

(e)  Ex-President  Roosevelt  was  in  England. 

9.  Dictate : 

"We're  going  to  have  a  new  maple  tree  in  the 

park,"  said  Sam  to  his  teacher. 
"How  do  you  know?"  said  the  teacher. 
"Well,"   replied  the  boy,   "I  stuck  a  seed  in  the 

ground." 
Points  covered: 

(a)   Quotation  marks,  (b)  capitals,  (c)  punctuation, 

(d)  spelling,  (e)  paragraph. 

10.    Rewrite     the     following,     putting     in     abbreviations 
wherever  possible : 

254 


THE   TEACHING  OF   GRAMMAR 

Mary  went  to  the  store  to  buy  a  pound  of  tea, 
two  dozen  eggs,  a  peck  of  onions,  a  pint  of  cream, 
and  an  ounce  of  pepper. 

12.  Proper  Reviews  Are  Essential  for  Successful  Work 
in  Grammar. — Grammar  makes  an  unusual  demand  on 
retentive  power  because  of  its  extensive  subject-mat- 
ter, rich  in  terminology,  laws,  and  classifications. 
To  make  all  this  necessary  information  permanent, 
frequent  reviews  are  essential.  But  there  is  no  need 
of  setting  aside  definite  periods  given  over  exclusively 
to  set  reviews  on  a  limited  portion  of  the  subject.  The 
most  successful  reviews  can  be  incidental  in  the  course 
of  ordinary  application  exercises  that  are  part  of  daily 
teaching.  Let  us  illustrate  such  a  review.  In  a  sev- 
enth-year class,  the  sentence  for  analysis  was  taken 
from  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address,  "We  have  come 
to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  resting-place 
for  those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation 
might  live."  Among  the  questions  were  the  following : 

1.  Analyze  the  sentence   and  give  the   syntax  of  each 

clause. 

2.  What  is  there  the  same  in  the  use  of  to  dedicate  and 

that  that  nation  might  live? 

3.  Change  the  phrase  to  a  clause  and  the  clause  to  a 

phrase. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  two  words  thai? 

5.  How  would  that  difference  help  you  in  correct  read- 

ing? 

6.  What  is  the  word  those?    Apply  the  test  and  prove 

that  you  are  right. 

7.  The  word  lives  is  what  part  of  speech?    Change  it  to 

a  verb  without  changing  its  spelling. 

255 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

Such  a  spirited  lesson  demands  keen  thought  and  in- 
sures a  good  review,  for  old  knowledge  is  called  up 
incidentally  and  is  seen  from  a  new  aspect.  A  set 
review  lesson  on  a  definite  topic  in  grammar  often 
lacks  the  effectiveness  of  the  informal  review. 

13.  The  Textbook  Must  Be  Used  Frequently  in  the 
Teaching  of  Grammar. — Proper  methods  of  teaching  in 
grammar  give  the  textbook  a  prominent  place.  It 
must  be  used  for  purposes  of  comparison  and  verifi- 
cation in  all  inductive  lessons.  At  the  end  of  the  les- 
son on  subject  and  predicate,  it  was  shown  that  the 
children  are  led  to  formulate  their  own  definitions. 
The  children's  result  should  be  compared  with  the 
definition  in  the  book  and  the  elements  in  the  two 
statements  should  be  noted  carefully.  The  teacher 
must  elicit  from  the  class  the  reason  for  the  discrep- 
ancy, if  any  exists,  and  then  lead  them  to  decide 
whether  the  definition  in  the  book,  or  their  own, 
is  worthy  of  memorization.  Often  the  statement 
in  the  book  is  voted  too  difficult  or  too  long  and  it 
must  give  way  to  the  simpler  formulation  by  the 
class. 

A  second  invaluable  aid  rendered  by  the  book  is  in 
the  application  step.  A  good  textbook  in  grammar 
must  be  replete  with  a  host  of  well-graded  and  varied 
exercises  which  give  the  children  drill  in  the  use  of 
the  facts  that  were  taught  and  thus  relieve  the  teacher 
of  the  burden  of  seeking  satisfactory  forms  of  appli- 
cation. This  is  the  most  important  single  factor  which 
determines  the  value  of  a  textbook  in  grammar  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  A  third  use  of  the  book  is  to  give 

256 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

a  logically  arranged  summary  of  the  facts  taught  in 
the  class  and  thus  make  unnecessary  the  keeping  of 
notes  by  children  in  anticipation  of  tests.  And,  finally, 
a  good  textbook  in  grammar  gives  suitable  text  for 
deductive  lessons  and  thus  serves  as  a  means  of  teach- 
ing children  how  to  study  the  subject.  In  the  lesson 
on  infinitives,  the  reader  will  find  an  illustration  and  an 
amplification  of  this  function  of  the  book.  In  the  up- 
per grades  the  emphasis  must  shift  from  the  teaching 
of  grammar  to  teaching  how  to  study  grammar.  In 
discharging  this  function,  the  textbook  is  of  greatest 
service. 

14.  Careful  Gradation  Is  a  Potent  Factor  in  Removing 
Difficulties  of  Comprehension  in  Grammar. — In  gram- 
mar, as  in  arithmetic,  undue  difficulties  are  introduced 
in  the  course  of  teaching,  by  a  lack  of  careful  grada- 
tion. Teachers  take  the  objective  view  of  a  topic  and 
plan  it  by  subdividing  it  into  its  logical  parts,  teaching 
them  in  successive  periods.  It  is  absolutely  essential 
that  the  teacher  take  the  child's  place,  imagine  himself 
on  the  child's  plane  of  ignorance  of  the  basic  facts  of 
grammar,  and  then  try  to  foresee  the  successive  diffi- 
culties that  will  beset  the  path  of  the  immature  mind 
as  the  entire  topic  is  unfolded.  Failure  to  do  this, 
whether  due  to  lack  of  preparation  or  of  sympathetic 
insight,  undermines  successful  teaching,  for  a  new 
difficulty  is  introduced  before  a  preceding  one  is  solved 
and  cumulative  confusion  results.  An  analysis  of  the 
sequence  of  topics  in  the  following  lessons  will  give  a 
conception  of  the  kind  of  gradation  often  absolutely 
necessary  in  grammar. 

257 


THE   TEACHING   OF    ENGLISH 


TOPIC:     PREDICATE    ADJECTIVE    AND    PREDICATE    NOUN    OR 
PRONOUN 

1.  Exercises  in  which  constructions  like  The  happy  birds, 
The  beautiful  flowers,  The  green  grass,  etc.,  are  changed  to 
The  birds  are  happy,  The  flowers  are  beautiful,  The  grass 
is  green.    Repeat,  changing  The  French  people  are  artistic, 
The  Japanese  are  shrewd,  etc.,  to  The  artistic  French  peo- 
ple, The  shrewd  Japanese. 

Elicit :  happy,  beautiful,  green,  artistic,  shrewd,  as  used  in 
the  full  sentences  are  (a)  adjectives  and  (b)  in  the  predi- 
cate, hence  (c)  called  predicate  adjectives. 

2.  Pick   out  predicate   adjectives   in   the   following   and 

apply  the  test  to  each: 
The  weather  is  mild — mild — The  mild  weather. 

3.  Complete  the  following  by  using  predicate  adjectives 

to  make  complete  sentences: 

The  Indians . 

Rabbits . 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  supply  the  verbs  in  this  form 
of  drill  for  then  most  children  answer  correctly  though  they 
may  not  understand  the  function  of  the  predicate  adjective. 

4.  Which  of  the  following  are  objects  and  which  pred- 
icate adjectives?    I  saw  John.    He  is  studious.    He  studies 
grammar.     Grammar  is  useful,  etc. 

5.  Enriched     conception,     the     predicate     noun     taught 
through  the  idea  of  identity  by  a  method  similar  to  that 
used  for  the  predicate  adjective.    The  test:  can  subject  and 
predicate  noun  be  interchanged? 

6.  Exercises  like  those  under  2,  3,  4,  adapted  to  predicate 
noun. 

7.  The  introduction  of  the  pronoun. 

8.  Exercise  like  2,  3,  4,  adapted  to  the  pronoun. 

9.  Compound  predicate  adjectives  and  nouns. 

He  is  keen,  conscientious  and  just.     He  is  com- 
mander of  the  army  and  leader  of  the  people. 

258 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

10.  False  syntax.     Exercises  in  which  errors  like  //  is 
me,  It  was  her,  etc.,  are  corrected. 

11.  Distinction  between  adjective  and  adverb  in  follow- 
ing constructions :    The  flowers  smell  sweet,  The  child  writes 
well,  etc.    This  is  the  most  advanced  phase  of  the  topic  and 
must  be  postponed  for  work  in  later  grades.     The  teacher 
who  tries  to  save  time  in  the  average  class  by  omitting  some 
steps  in  this  gradation  invariably  loses  time  and  effort  for  a 
confusion  is  introduced  which  almost  defies  later  attempts  at 
clarification. 

15.  All  Grammatical  Forms  and  Functions  Must  Be 
Taught  in  the  Same  Association  in  Which  They  Will  Be 
Used  in  Natural  Speech.. — The  bulk  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  grammar  deals  with  modification  of  im- 
portant parts  of  speech.  In  nouns  and  pronouns, 
much  time  is  taken  up  in  teaching  person,  number, 
gender  and  case;  in  adjectives  and  adverbs,  compari- 
sons with  the  three  degrees  of  positive,  comparative, 
and  superlative,  in  regular  and  irregular  forms;  in 
verbs,  person,  number,  mood,  tense,  and  voice.  The 
teaching  problems  that  arise  in  these  modifications 
are  simple  enough,  for  the  difficulties  involved  can 
be  solved  readily  by  the  application  of  the  principles 
discussed  in  this  chapter. 

In  teaching  the  forms  and  the  functions  that  con- 
stitute the  modifications  of  English  grammar,  it  is 
general  to  find  teachers  presenting  them  in  lists  de- 
void of  all  natural  context.  But  mastery  of  forms 
without  content  does  not  develop  ability  to  use  these 
forms  in  content.  Children  recite  rules  for  the  for- 
mation of  plurals  or  of  opposite  genders  until  every 
detail  is  known  beyond  doubt.  In  classes,  one  hears 

259 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

the  monotonous  babble  of  child,  children;  ox,  oxen; 
sheep,  sheep;  scissors,  scissors;  actor,  actress;  gander, 
goose;  hero,  heroine;  etc.  But  despite  this  glib  recital 
in  list  form,  one  finds  the  compositions  of  these  chil- 
dren replete  with  "She  was  an  actor,"  "Five  oxes 
pulled  the  wagon,"  "In  this  picture  I  see  many  sheeps." 
Such  results  after  tedious  drills  in  lists  come  with 
unfailing  regularity,  for  the  language  forms  were  not 
taught  in  those  associations  in  which  they  will  be  used 
later  in  life.  The  changing  forms  of  gender  and  num- 
ber must  be  taught  in  context,  the  teacher  giving  one 
form  and  the  children  the  opposite  one  in  a  sentence, 
e.g.: 

Teacher  Pupil 

I  We  all  intend  to  study. 

oxen  An  ox  is  a  strong  animal. 

actor  She  is  a  great  actress. 

Such  recitations  and  drills  take  longer  than  those  in 
list  forms,  but  they  produce  gratifying  results  in  oral 
and  written  composition. 

In  teaching  case  forms,  the  teacher's  problem  is 
simplified  by  beginning  with  a  context  that  shows  the 
child  clearly  that  this  new  phase  of  grammar  is  essen- 
tial. "Case"  must  therefore  be  taught  through  pro- 
nouns, for,  aside  from  the  possessive  form,  it  plays  no 
important  role  in  nouns.  In  teaching  cases  of  pro- 
nouns, the  law  which  insists  on  natural  context  must 
be  obeyed  rigidly.  To  make  children  repeat  inces- 
santly I,  my  or  mine,  me,  we,  our  or  ours,  us,  is  no 
guarantee  that  they  will  use  these  forms  correctly. 

260 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 

The  declension  of  the  first  personal  pronoun  should 
take  the  following  form : 

/  have  a  book.  We  have  many  books. 

The  book  is  mine.  They  are  ours. 

It  is  my  book.  They  are  our  books. 

Give  the  book  to  me.  Give  the  books  to  us. 

A  later  drill  should  require  children  to  read  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  and  insert  the  correct  form  of  the 
first  personal  pronoun: 

My  brother,  James,  and  ....  took  a  walk. 

We  passed  ....  school. 

Jane  Smith  was  just  coming  out.  She  saw  . . . , 
but  did  not  know  it  was  .... 

The  same  procedure  applies  to  drills  on  positive, 
comparative,  and  superlative  degrees  of  adjectives  and 
adverbs  and  to  all  modifications  of  verbs.  The  prin- 
cipal parts  of  commonly  used  irregular  verbs  form 
one  of  the  most  important  topics  in  teaching  verbs, 
because  they  are  constantly  misused  by  children.  One 
hears  with  disturbing  frequency,  "We  brang  our 
lunch" ;  "Yesterday  we  come  into  the  class" ;  "We  done 
our  lesson  in  a  book  that  costed  five  cents" ;  "I  hurted 
myself."  Realizing  the  need  of  vigorous  effort  in  im- 
proving this  type  of  error,  teachers  subject  the  princi- 
pal parts  of  verbs  to  incessant  drill  in  tabular  form. 
The  din  of  go,  went,  going,  gone;  come,  came,  coming, 
come;  hurt,  hurt,  hurting,  hurt;  etc.,  is  heard  through 
transoms  and  open  doors,  but  when  compositions  of 
the  succeeding  weeks  are  examined,  it  becomes  mani- 

261 


THE   TEACHING   OF   ENGLISH 

fest,  again,  that  recitation  of  grammatical  forms  in 
isolated  lists  is  a  pedagogical  practice  made  reverent 
by  age  rather  than  by  results.  Let  the  teacher  insist 
on  having  the  parts  of  the  verbs  in  context.  The 
child's  successful  recitation  of  "I  come  into  this  room 
every  morning;  yesterday  I  came  into  the  room;  you 
are  coming  into  the  room  now ;  the  boy  has  come  into 
the  room  to-day, "  gives  the  teacher  good  cause  to 
hope  that  part  of  the  grammatical  forms  and  functions 
may  pass  over  into  the  expressional  stock  of  her  chil- 
dren. 

Summary:  Place  of  Grammar  in  the  Elementary  Cur- 
riculum.— We  saw  in  the  course  of  this  discussion  that 
grammar  has  been  attacked  most  vigorously  by  many 
progressive  teachers,  and  the  indictments  found 
against  it  are  just.  But  most  of  the  objections  are 
remedial,  for  they  are  due  not  to  the  inherent  limita- 
tions of  grammar  as  an  elementary  school  subject, 
but  rather  to  poorly  organized  courses  of  study  and 
faulty  methods  of  teaching.  We  must  look,  there- 
fore, to  a  liberal  reduction  in  the  requirements  of 
courses  in  formal  grammar,  to  a  simplification  and 
standardization  of  its  terminology,  and  to  the  intro- 
duction of  methods  of  teaching  which  emphasize  the 
function  rather  than  the  form.  Then,  and  only  then, 
will  grammar  come  into  its  own  in  the  pedagogical 
sphere  of  elementary  education. 


262 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GRAMMAR 


SUGGESTED  READING 

ARNOLD,  F.    Special  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  2214- 

257.    S.  Mandel,  27  St.  Nicholas  Place,  N.  Y. 
CARPENTER,   BAKER  and   SCOTT.     The  Teaching  of 

English,  pp.  144-152.    Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
CHUBB,  P.    The  Teaching  of  English,  chap.  XII.  The 

Macmillan  Co. 
GOLDWASSER,    I.    E.      Method   and   Methods    in   the 

Teaching  of  English,  chaps.  XXIII,  XXV.    D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co. 
Hosic,<  JAMES  F.    The  Elementary  Course  in  English, 

pp.  31-34.    University  of  Chicago  Press. 
HOYT,  F.   S.     Studies  in  the   Teaching  of   English 

Grammar.   Teachers'  College  Record,  Nov.,  1906. 
LEONARD,  MARY  H.     Grammar  and  Its  Reasons.     A. 

S.  Barnes  &  Co. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.    Linguistic  Development  and  Educa- 
tion, chaps.  III-V. 
Report  of   Committee  of   Fifteen,   on  Teaching  of 

Grammar. 


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